考虑耕犁的超声磨削表面微观形貌建模与预测

超声磨削加工在难加工材料领域得到广泛应用,超声辅助磨削过程中,超声振动参数对磨削后的表面微观形貌具有重要影响,因此,为了在加工前对超声加工后的表面微观形貌进行预测,以优化加工参数。提出一种考虑耕犁的超声磨削表面微观形貌建模与预测方法。假设磨粒为球形,磨粒直径与间距服从高斯分布,给出砂轮形貌的数值生成方法;根据超声磨削运动学,建立考虑磨粒实时切削深度与耕犁影响的三维运动轨迹方程;在此基础上,提出超声磨削表面微观形貌生成的区域逼近求解算法,进而给出超声磨削表面微观形貌生成模型,模拟出超声磨削的三维表面微观形貌。通过试验分别从表面微观形貌的轨迹纹理、表面粗糙度数值两个方面对超声磨削表面微观形貌的模型的正确性进行了验证。     

Kinematic simulation of the uncut chip thickness and surface finish using a reduced set of 3D grinding wheel measurements

This paper combined experimentally-measured grinding wheel topography data taken around the entire circumference of the grinding wheel with a kinematic simulation of the grinding process. Several new methods were developed in order to create the resulting high-fidelity and computationally-efficient simulation. First a novel peak-removal technique was developed and applied to effectively remove erroneous peaks in the raw wheel topography data. Next a method was found to determine only the active cutting points on the wheel model by considering the kinematics of the grinding process. This new approach was able to reduce the simulation time from over twelve hours to about four seconds without losing any information about the cutting edge–workpiece interaction. The resulting predicted workpiece surface was then experimentally validated by carrying out a grinding experiment using the same grinding wheel used to develop the grinding wheel computer model and then measuring the resulting workpiece surface profile. Good agreement between simulated and experimental workpiece profiles was observed. Finally, the validated simulator was used to develop a kinematically-exact method to calculate the maximum uncut chip thickness and the simulation results were investigated for different depths of cut, wheel speeds and workpiece feeds.     

外圆磨削砂轮形貌仿真与工件表面粗糙度预测

对磨削砂轮形貌、外圆磨削过程及工件表面形貌进行了仿真,实现了对工件表面粗糙度的预测,并对仿真模型进行了验证。采用Johnson变换和Gabor小波变换,实现了高斯域和非高斯域的转化,在随机域内对磨削砂轮形貌进行了仿真。根据外圆磨削运动过程,通过对砂轮和工件相互作用过程的分析,建立了磨粒运动轨迹方程和工件形貌方程,在考虑磨粒切削、耕犁与摩擦作用的条件下,对外圆磨削过程进行了仿真。建立了外圆磨削模型,实现了对加工工件形貌的仿真和粗糙度预测。     

超声振动螺线磨削表面微观形貌建模与仿真研究

为了实现高效率、高质量、低损伤的硬脆材料加工,对工件或砂轮同时施加砂轮轴向和径向的超声振动,该方法的显著特点是磨粒切削轨迹呈三维空间螺旋线型,将其定义为超声振动螺线磨削方法。在磨削工艺和二维超声振动的多参数共同作用下,材料去除机理产生复杂变化,表面微观形貌创出过程变得极其复杂。为此,提出一种超声振动螺线磨削加工表面数值仿真方法。基于超声振动螺线磨削几何映射关系,建立磨粒相对工件的空间螺旋线切削运动模型,进而给出超声振动螺线磨削加工表面生成模型,模拟出普通磨削和超声振动磨削的三维表面微观形貌,对比分析了超声振动对表面形成过程的影响规律。最后将仿真表面与磨削试验表面对比,发现两者微观形貌特征规律基本一致,验证了仿真方法的正确性和有效性。     

点磨削工件微观形貌仿真与试验研究

点磨削属于外圆磨削技术的一种,其砂轮与工件轴线之间存在变量夹角α,加工过程中磨粒的运动轨迹发生改变。为探索α对工件表面粗糙度的影响,利用砂轮与工件之间的运动关系及坐标转化,将磨粒运动函数等效为抛物线,得出点磨削的切削路径。基于砂轮表面磨粒分布状态,沿砂轮轴向扩展有效干涉痕迹,得到工件的三维几何仿真形貌。将45钢淬火后作为工件材料,选择典型磨削参数,利用试验对模型进行验证。结果表明:仿真与实际工件微观形貌呈现相似特征,两形貌表面高度概率密度分布十分吻合,在不同磨削速度下,两结果之间平均相差7.8%。当α在0°～4°变化时,Ra的浮动范围小于0.1μm,工件表面粗糙度不会发生明显改变,几何仿真模型为实际磨削工件形貌分析提供了一种辅助和验证方法。     

一维斜向超声振动辅助磨削滚动轴承钢工艺及试验研究

针对目前只有一维轴向、一维切向等振动方向不变的一维超声振动辅助磨削的情况,首次提出了一维斜向超声振动辅助磨削工艺方法。利用MATLAB对一维斜向超声振动辅助磨削磨粒的运动轨迹进行了模拟分析。建立了超声振动试验系统的动力学模型。通过对超声振动工作台的模态分析,研制了一维斜向超声振动辅助磨削试验系统,对不同角度下超声振动辅助磨削滚动轴承钢的磨削力及表面粗糙度值进行了研究,探究了磨削力及表面粗糙度值随超声振动方向的变化规律。多次试验结果表明,超声振动角度为67.5°附近的表面粗糙度值明显优于其他角度的表面粗糙度值,磨削力也有减小。对正交试验结果的极差分析得出：当超声振动角度为67.5°、砂轮速度为20m/s、工件速度为0.5m/min以及磨削深度为4μm时,加工后的工件表面粗糙度达到最低值,其中工件速度是影响表面粗糙度的最重要工艺参数。     

Modeling of grinding wheel topography based on a joint method of 3D microscopic observation and embedded grindable thermocouple technique

The grinding wheel generally has a complicated topography for the irregularity of abrasive grits, which always has an important influence on the final quality of the grinding workpiece. In this paper, a joint method of microscopic observation and grindable thermocouple technique was adopted to model the wheel topography. The grinding wheel topography was first modeled through microscopic observation by an in-position 3D microscope KH-7700 installed on the grinding machine. Based on the measurement of grit sizes, shapes, and distributions through the 3D microscope, a wheel surface model was established and a static grit number model based on Rayleigh distribution was proposed. Moreover, a numerical model was given to validate the proposed Rayleigh distribution model of an active grit number. In order to investigate the real abrasive grit number in a grinding process, an embedded grindable thermocouple was used to detect the dynamic variation of temperature signals, which will reflect the variation of in-process wheel topography under different process parameters, machine status, and even the grit-workpiece interaction status. Through the experimental analysis, it can be concluded that the increase of depth of cut a_p could help to greatly increase the active grit number to the grinding process, while the increase of workpiece speed V_w and decrease of wheel speed V_s could lead to a subtle increase of the grit number. Moreover, the active grit number is about one fourth to one third of the static grits. The contact arc length between the wheel (CBN) and the workpiece (Ti-6Al-4V) was calculated by the contact time from the workpiece surface temperature data, and it was found that the actual contact arc length was about 1.5~2 times of the geometric size.     

A new model of grit cutting depth in wafer rotational grinding considering the effect of the grinding wheel,workpiece characteristics,and grinding parameters

Wafer rotational grinding is widely employed for back-thinning and flattening of semiconducting wafers during the manufacturing process of integrated circuits. Grit cutting depth is a comprehensive indicator that characterizes overall grinding conditions, such as the wheel structure, geometry, abrasive grit size, and grinding parameters. Furthermore, grit cutting depth directly affects wafer surface/subsurface quality, grinding force, and wheel performance. The existing grit cutting depth models for wafer rotational grinding cannot provide reasonable results due to the complex grinding process under extremely small grit cutting depth. In this paper, a new grit cutting depth model for wafer rotational grinding is proposed which considers machining parameters, wheel grit shape, wheel surface topography, effective grit number, and elastic deformation of the wheel grit and the workpiece during the grinding process. In addition, based on grit cutting depth and ground surface roughness relationship, a series of grinding experiments under various grit cutting depths are conducted to produce silicon wafers with various surface roughness values and compare the predictive accuracy of the proposed model and the existing models. The results indicate that predictions obtained by the proposed model are in better agreement with the experimental results, while accuracy is improved by 40%–60% compared to the previous models.     

磨削温度场的有限元模拟及仿真

金刚石砂轮磨削结构陶瓷过程中,所产生的磨削热是影响工件表面质量的关键因素之一,而磨削参数对工件表层温度分布有重要影响。本文采用有限元法,通过两种陶瓷材料对比分析,运用ANSYS软件对磨削温度场进行了仿真研究,利用仿真模型对影响因素作了分析。     

Experimental study of time-dependent performance in superalloy high-speed grinding with cBN wheels

The time-dependent performance of grinding is expressed as the change of process output measures as a function of time during grinding. Although the wheel capability will be restored by dressing, the time-dependent performance of grinding during one dressing skip is the determinant on the grinding quality variation in terms of surface integrity and workpiece geometric accuracy. Therefore, understanding of grinding time-dependent performance in relation with the wheel–workpiece microscopic interaction is critical for wheel and process development to achieve stable grinding processes. In this article, the grinding of superalloy with cubic boron nitride (cBN) grinding wheels is performed. The time-dependent performance is recorded to represent the characteristic features, and the microscopic wheel topography is measured under scanning electron microscope (SEM) throughout the grinding process, so as to reveal the root cause for the time-dependent performance and its impact on the workpiece quality variation. The experiment results indicate that during the grinding process, there exist three characteristic stages, namely, initial wheel wear stage, severe wheel wear stage, and wheel resharpening stage. Moreover, the change trend of spindle power consumption, workpiece quality on surface hardness and roughness, wheel wear condition, and G ratio are consistent with the wheel topography evolution reflected by SEM photos, which can be used to present the three grinding stages. The wear and replacement of the efficient grain cutting edges result in the time-dependent performance during superalloy high-speed grinding with cBN wheels.     

加压内冷却砂轮的研制及磨削性能研究

针对高温合金材料在磨削加工过程中存在磨削烧伤问题,为避免气障效应并强化冷却液在磨削弧区的换热效果,提出采用加压式内冷却断续磨削方法。利用数值模拟方法和3D打印技术对砂轮基体、加压内冷却系统和密封结构等进行设计和验证,制备了用于平面磨削的加压内冷却开槽CBN砂轮。在相同的磨削加工参数条件下,使用加压内冷却方法与外部喷射冷却方法进行镍基高温合金磨削对比试验,分析了砂轮速度、磨削深度和工件进给速度等加工参数对磨削温度、加工表面粗糙度和表面形貌的影响规律,验证了加压内冷却断续磨削方法对磨削弧区的强化换热效果。结果表明：在相同试验参数条件下磨削镍基高温合金,加压内冷却法比外部喷射冷却法的换热效率更高,得到的磨削温度更低,表面粗糙度更小,加工表面更为光滑细腻。     

Influence of wheel speed on surface finish and chip geometry in precision contour grinding

A geometric computer model of a precision grinding operation was developed to calculate the surface features generated during contour grinding with a radiused wheel. This simulation includes the influence of the wheel (rotational speed, diameter, and nose radius), the workpiece (radius at cutting point, rotational speed), and the feedrate of the grinding wheel over the part. The model indicates that small changes in the wheel speed relative to the workpiece can have a dramatic effect on the surface finish over a specific area. Analysis of ground surfaces reveals uniform surface profiles and easily distinguished features that could only be produced by a constant wheel speed. This occurs for an air-bearing, air-turbude grinding spindle that has limited torque and is driven under open-loop control. The effects of the relative speeds are analyzed and an energy-based “phase locking” mechanism is proposed that can provide feedback to the grinding spindle from the material removal operation. By monitoring the spindle speeds during the grinding process and evaluating the resulting surface features, the phase effect has been experimentally verified.     

结构化凹坑减阻表面的拓扑磨削与仿真研究

为了磨削出凹坑型结构化减阻表面,基于磨削运动学关系与点集拓扑理论,提出拓扑磨削结构化减阻表面的方法。首先对凹坑型结构化表面进行拓扑特征分析,根据凹坑表面创成机制建立结构化表面与结构化砂轮间的拓扑映射矩阵,设计出磨料簇砂轮;建立拓扑磨削运动轨迹模型,并通过MatLab仿真磨削过程,分析速度比与磨削深度等参数对表面形貌的影响。仿真与分析结果表明:采用拓扑磨削的方法并合理选用速度比与磨削深度等参数,可以在工件表面磨削出特定形状的凹坑型结构化减阻表面,且随着速度比的增大,凹坑长度与长度方向排布周期均增大;随着磨削深度增大,凹坑的长度与宽度增大,排布周期不变。     

Study on the rotary cup dressing of CBN grinding wheel and the grinding performance

A systematic research is conducted to investigate the effect of rotary cup dressing on vitrified cubic boron nitride grinding performance in grinding of nickel-based superalloys. Grinding performance is evaluated mainly in terms of specific grinding energy and radial wheel wear. The number of active grits per unit area and their slope is considered as the two grinding wheel topographical key parameters for studying grinding performance. Cup dressing conditions with various speed ratios and overlap factors were investigated. In each case, the specific grinding energy and the radial wheel wear were experimentally measured, and then the effect of changing dressing parameters on the grinding performance is analyzed. To provide a view on how various parameters influence specific energy and the importance of wheel topography and grit workpiece interaction, a new specific grinding energy model is developed. Inputs to this model are workpiece parameters, grinding process parameters, and, in particular, the grinding wheel topographical parameters. This model is validated by experimental results. The theoretical values considering the complexity of the grinding process reasonably compare with the experimental results. The effect of number of active grits per unit area and their slope on specific grinding energy and then metal removal mechanism is investigated. The results revealed that the number of active grits per unit area has less effect on specific grinding energy than grits slope.     

Simulation of elliptical patterns based on grinding with wheel dressed by elliptical tool

Dressing is a sharpening operation aimed to produce a specific groove shape on the active surface of the wheel. The preparation of grinding tools in special way is the most important enabling factor in the grinding process. It greatly influences the subsequent geometry of the workpiece. As the groove shape of the wheel surface determines the shape of the surface patterns, therefore, it is essential to produce desired groove on the wheel cutting surface before grinding. Therefore, an elliptical groove surface pattern model is proposed based on grinding with dressed wheel. An elliptical tip tool is used for the dressing process to make grooves on the wheel instead of sharp tip tool or rounded tip tool in the previous work. The dressing tool passes helically over the surface of the grinding wheel for making grooves. After that, the grooved wheel passes over the flat surface to generate elliptical patterns. The results showed the three-dimensional geometry of the surface patterns with elliptical groove which are uniformly distributed on the workpiece. An experiment is carried out for the verification of the simulation results and it is revealed that the simulation results agreed well with the experiment.     

Numerical modelling of surface topography in superabrasive grinding

A numerical simulation technique has been developed to generate the grinding wheel topography using square pyramidal grits. The ground workpiece surface has also been generated simulating the trajectory of all the abrasive grits and removing the interfering material. The average workpiece surface roughness is calculated and the effects of different grinding parameters on the average surface roughness of the generated workpiece have been studied. Finally, the variation of surface roughness with the maximum uncut chip thickness has been studied.     

3D metal removal simulation to determine uncut chip thickness, contact length, and surface finish in grinding

The two most important geometric parameters that describe the mechanics of grinding are the uncut chip thickness and the contact length. Currently, analytical approaches are used to estimate these parameters. The accuracy of these approaches, however, is limited because they do not take into account the random shape, size, and protrusion height and placement of the abrasive grains around the circumference of the grinding wheel. In this paper, a simulation technique was used to gain new insight into the effect of the stochastic nature of grinding wheels on the geometric properties of the grinding process. The simulator was used to calculate the number of active grains, uncut chip thickness, and contact length for a stochastic wheel model of Radiac Abrasive’s WRA-60-J5-V1 grinding wheel. These values were then mapped to every grain on the grinding wheel and used to determine the instantaneous material removal rate of the wheel and workpiece surface finish. There was excellent agreement between the predicted and experimentally measured surface topology of the workpiece. The results suggest that only 10–25 % of the grains on the grinding wheel are active and that the average grinding chip may be as much as ten times thicker and ten times shorter than would be produced by a grinding wheel with a regular arrangement of cutting edges as assumed by existing analytical approaches.     

Modeling and simulation of cutting forces generated during vertical micro-grinding

Micro-grinding using micro-tools has become very prevalent due to the miniaturization of products with increased process requirements. Moreover, this process provides an edge over other competitive processes, especially as a final process step. The quality of the part produced by the micro-scale grinding process can be influenced by various factors, particularly by the induced mechanical forces. Therefore, predictive model of cutting force can provide guidance for further development and optimization of the process. Although there has been a lot of a research conducted on conventional grinding, little knowledge has been accumulated on micro-scale grinding due to the fact that it is an emerging field of research. The early grinding models developed are mostly based on parameters such as wheel and workpiece velocity, depth of cut and grit size of the grinding wheel. Those early models narrated that the grits penetrate and cut the material from the workpiece surface with the generated grinding forces proportional to the removed material. However, those models may not be appropriate for micro-scale grinding due to the mode of material removal and the method of contact between surfaces which is different from the macro-scale method. In addition to that, due to the small feed rate used in brittle material machining, ploughing force needs to be considered intensively in addition to the chip formation force. Therefore, a new analytical model has been proposed to evaluate cutting forces of micro-grinding process based on the process configuration, workpiece material properties and micro-grinding tool topography. The size effect of micro-machining has been carefully considered in this proposed model. Therefore, this approach allows the derivation of cutting force comprising of both the chip formation force and ploughing force. Experimental investigation in a micro-grinding configuration has been pursued to validate the proposed predictive model. The estimated cutting force showed a good correlation with the experimental values except for higher depth of cut and lower feed rate. Additionally, paired T test has been performed to quantify the difference between the predicted and experimental results.     

基于贝叶斯网络的平面磨削状态智能监测技术研究

为解决平面磨削过程中工件表面粗糙度预测和砂轮钝化监测困难的问题,利用贝叶斯网络建立了平面磨削状态智能监测模型。该模型在获取系统磨削用量和工件材料的基础上,在线提取磨削声发射信号的峭度系数,可以有效预测工件粗糙度和识别砂轮钝化状态,为数控系统调节加工参数提供参考。该模型在平面磨床的磨削监测试验中取得了良好的效果。     

螺旋槽砂轮磨削非光滑表面形貌特征仿真

非光滑表面在机械摩擦磨损的过程中具有减少摩擦和降低能耗的作用。为获得平面工件的非光滑表面,采用磨削加工方式。将砂轮表面修整成螺旋槽形状,并建立螺旋槽砂轮表面的数学模型,根据磨削运动学建立磨粒运动轨迹方程,通过MATLAB仿真研究不同加工参数下磨削表面的形貌特征。