The effectiveness of enforcement and publicity campaigns on serious crashes involving young male drivers: Are drink driving and speeding similar?

This study re-evaluated the effectiveness of the anti-drink driving and anti-speeding enforcement and publicity campaigns implemented in the Australian State of Victoria which have thus far yielded mixed results in several evaluations. As opposed to previous evaluations, this study focused on the effects of these campaigns on young male drivers who formed the primary target and examined the combined effects of the campaigns on the total number of serious crashes. Our results showed that the anti-drink driving enforcement and publicity campaigns had a significant independent effect in reducing crashes but their interactive effect was anti-complementary. Conversely, the anti-speeding enforcement and publicity campaigns had no independent effect but their interactive effect was significant in reducing serious crashes involving young male drivers.     

Who is driving when unrestrained children and teenagers are hurt?

This paper examines driver characteristics in crashes where child and teenage motor vehicle crash victims were injured, in particular factors that determine whether or not the victim was restrained. Analyzing the data on children and teenagers who are injured revealed that the presence of a second adult in a vehicle increased the likelihood that these passengers were unrestrained. Other findings are more predictable: victim restraint use generally mirrored driver restraint use; a male driver, a young driver, a drinking driver, a speeding or reckless driver, an unlicenced or suspended driver, and a night-time trip each independently raised the odds that child and teenage passengers were not restrained when they were injured.     

Drink driving enforcement and publicity campaigns: are the policy recommendations sensitive to model specification?

Since their implementation, the drink driving enforcement and publicity campaigns in the Australian State of Victoria have been extensively evaluated and the mixed results obtained have generated much public debate. Using the same data from previous studies, this paper re-evaluated the effectiveness of the campaigns and tested several model assumptions and specifications. In general, the results obtained were robust and showed that the campaigns were effective in reducing serious crashes during high alcohol hours.     

Analyzing fault in pedestrian–motor vehicle crashes in North Carolina

Crashes between pedestrians and motor vehicles are an important traffic safety concern. This paper explores the assignment of fault in such crashes, where observed factors are associated with pedestrian at fault, driver at fault, or both at fault. The analysis is based on police reported crash data for 1997 through 2000 in North Carolina, U.S.A.The results show that pedestrians are found at fault in 59% of the crashes, drivers in 32%, and both are found at fault in 9%. The results indicate drivers need to take greater notice of pedestrians when drivers are turning, merging, and backing up as these are some of the prime factors associated with the driver being found at fault in a crash.Pedestrians must apply greater caution when crossing streets, waiting to cross, and when walking along roads, as these are correlated with pedestrians being found at fault. The results suggest a need for campaigns focused on positively affecting pedestrian street-crossing behavior in combination with added jaywalking enforcement. The results also indicate that campaigns to increase the use of pedestrian visibility improvements at night can have a significant positive impact on traffic safety. Intoxication is a concern and the results show that it is not only driver intoxication that is affecting safety, but also pedestrian intoxication.The findings show in combination with other research in the field, that results from traffic safety studies are not necessarily transferable between distant geographic locations, and that location-specific safety research needs to take place. It is also important to further study the specific effects of the design of the pedestrian environment on safety, e.g. crosswalk spacing, signal timings, etc., which together may affect pedestrian safety and pedestrian behavior.     

Evaluation of the Scottsdale Loop 101 automated speed enforcement demonstration program

Speeding is recognized as a major contributing factor in traffic crashes. In order to reduce speed-related crashes, the city of Scottsdale, Arizona implemented the first fixed-camera photo speed enforcement program (SEP) on a limited access freeway in the US. The 9-month demonstration program spanning from January 2006 to October 2006 was implemented on a 6.5 mile urban freeway segment of Arizona State Route 101 running through Scottsdale. This paper presents the results of a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the SEP on speeding behavior, crashes, and the economic impact of crashes. The impact on speeding behavior was estimated using generalized least square estimation, in which the observed speeds and the speeding frequencies during the program period were compared to those during other periods. The impact of the SEP on crashes was estimated using 3 evaluation methods: a before-and-after (BA) analysis using a comparison group, a BA analysis with traffic flow correction, and an empirical Bayes BA analysis with time-variant safety. The analysis results reveal that speeding detection frequencies (speeds ≥ 76 mph) increased by a factor of 10.5 after the SEP was (temporarily) terminated. Average speeds in the enforcement zone were reduced by about 9 mph when the SEP was implemented, after accounting for the influence of traffic flow. All crash types were reduced except rear-end crashes, although the estimated magnitude of impact varies across estimation methods (and their corresponding assumptions). When considering Arizona-specific crash related injury costs, the SEP is estimated to yield about $17 million in annual safety benefits.     

An evaluation of Winnipeg's photo enforcement safety program: Results of time series analyses and an intersection camera experiment

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of Winnipeg's photo enforcement safety program on speeding, i.e., “speed on green”, and red-light running behavior at intersections as well as on crashes resulting from these behaviors. ARIMA time series analyses regarding crashes related to red-light running (right-angle crashes and rear-end crashes) and crashes related to speeding (injury crashes and property damage only crashes) occurring at intersections were conducted using monthly crash counts from 1994 to 2008. A quasi-experimental intersection camera experiment was also conducted using roadside data on speeding and red-light running behavior at intersections. These data were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. The time series analyses showed that for crashes related to red-light running, there had been a 46% decrease in right-angle crashes at camera intersections, but that there had also been an initial 42% increase in rear-end crashes. For crashes related to speeding, analyses revealed that the installation of cameras was not associated with increases or decreases in crashes. Results of the intersection camera experiment show that there were significantly fewer red light running violations at intersections after installation of cameras and that photo enforcement had a protective effect on speeding behavior at intersections. However, the data also suggest photo enforcement may be less effective in preventing serious speeding violations at intersections. Overall, Winnipeg's photo enforcement safety program had a positive net effect on traffic safety. Results from both the ARIMA time series and the quasi-experimental design corroborate one another. However, the protective effect of photo enforcement is not equally pronounced across different conditions so further monitoring is required to improve the delivery of this measure. Results from this study as well as limitations are discussed.     

Blood test legislation in New Zealand

The 1969 compulsory blood test law, which also established an absolute blood alcohol limit for New Zealand drivers, is evaluated according to reported incidence of alcohol in road crashes and according to various surrogate measures involving road crashes. The 1974 amendment, which liberalised the criterion for “due cause to suspect”, is evaluated in terms of enforcement activity. It is concluded that the 1969 law did not have the kind of immediate effect that was achieved in Great Britain in 1967. There may have been a more gradual effect, but one cannot be confident that such an effect occurred. The difference in impact was almost certainly due to attendant circumstances and the quite different types of publicity given the alcohol campaigns in the two countries. It was clearly not attributable to differences in the statute's content or in its enforcement, which has always been relatively active and has increased over the years. The increase in enforcement activity seems to have been accelerated by the 1974 amendment.     

An economic evaluation of incremental resources to road safety programmes in New Zealand

Road crashes are related to the level of traffic, road and weather conditions, and most importantly, road user behaviour, which is a function of the level of enforcement, education and advertising campaigns. Safety programmes such as enforcement and advertising campaigns against drink-driving, speeding or seatbelt wearing aim to improve road user behaviour, and thereby to reduce the number and severity of crashes. This paper estimates incremental safety outcomes of these programmes over time and compares them with their resource costs. Due to the common outcome of several programmes, it is difficult to identify the effects of individual programmes. This paper tries to separate out the effects of non-roading safety programmes as a group from roading improvements. The analysis shows that safety programmes in New Zealand produce high incremental returns. Given that the crash risks in New Zealand are high in comparison with most other OECD countries, there is considerable scope for improvements to be made. The high incremental benefit/cost ratio over time supports this view and indicates that the investment in safety programmes is well below the optimal level.     

Is speeding a "real" antisocial behavior? A comparison with other antisocial behaviors

The relationship between speed and crashes has been well established in the literature, with the consequence that speed reduction through enforced or other means should lead to a reduction in crashes. The extent to which the public regard speeding as a problem that requires enforcement is less clear. Analysis was conducted on public perceptions of antisocial behaviors including speeding traffic. The data was collected as part of the British Crime Survey, a face-to-face interview with UK residents on issues relating to crime. The antisocial behavior section required participants to state the degree to which they perceived 16 antisocial behaviors to be a problem in their area. Results revealed that speeding traffic was perceived as the greatest problem in local communities, regardless of whether respondents were male or female, young, middle aged, or old. The rating of speeding traffic as the greatest problem in the community was replicated in a second, smaller postal survey, where respondents also provided strong support for enforcement on residential roads, and indicated that traveling immediately above the speed limit on residential roads was unacceptable. Results are discussed in relation to practical implications for speed enforcement, and the prioritization of limited police resources.     

An experimental study to evaluate the effectiveness of different methods and intensities of law enforcement on driving speed on motorways

Two field experiments were conducted to establish the most effective method of enforcement in reducing driving speed and to establish the most efficient strategy in terms of police force personnel required. In the first experiment, the effect of three variables on driving speed on motorways was studied. The first variable, intensity of enforcement, was manipulated by creating three different objective levels of apprehension for detected speeding drivers. The second variable was method of enforcement. On-view stopping and ticketing of offenders was compared to mailing of fines on the basis of the car's licence plate number. The third variable manipulated was the time delay in the mailing of fines. Time delay between detection of the offence and feedback to the driver was shortened in one condition. In a second experiment, police enforcement effort was optimized by relating intensity level of enforcement to the proportion of speeding vehicles. In the first experiment, police enforcement was applied for four weeks; in the second experiment, enforcement activities were continued for 12 consecutive weeks. In both cases the main dependent variable was driving speed. Before, during, and after the application of enforcement, speed was registered using induction loops. In addition, driver opinion about speeding and speed enforcement was studied using postal questionnaire surveys. The results show the largest and longest lasting reduction in driving speed in the highest intensity level-condition, giving support for a relation between objective chance of apprehension and speed choice. On-view stopping of offenders was shown to be a more effective method to reduce driving speed than mailing of fines. Some of these results are discussed in the light of game theory. The questionnaire surveys indicated that most drivers did not notice the recurrence in enforcement activities due to infrequent passing of the sections of motorways studied. The preventive effect of police enforcement appeared to be far more substantial than its repressive effect. Enforcement primarily deters the current nonoffender from speeding.     

Seat belt use among 13-15 year olds in primary and secondary enforcement law states

CONTEXT: Coverage and enforcement provisions of safety belt use laws vary by state. Most laws cover drivers and passengers age 16 and above. "Primary" enforcement laws allow police to stop and ticket a motorist for a safety belt law violation. With "secondary" enforcement laws, ticketing can only occur in the presence of another traffic infraction. Given the lower rates of restraint use among teen drivers and their passengers, the effect of primary enforcement laws on the restraint use of young teen passengers is of particular interest. OBJECTIVE: To compare restraint use by 13-15 year olds passengers in motor vehicle crashes in states with primary versus secondary enforcement safety belt laws. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of 3953 crashes involving 5372 children, representing 54,226 children aged 13-15 years in 41,198 crashes of insured vehicles in 16 states and Washington, DC between December 1, 1998 and December 31, 2004, with data collected via insurance claims records and a telephone survey. RESULTS: Non-use of restraints by 13-15 year olds was 7.2% (95% CI 4.3-10.1%) greater in secondary enforcement states (10.8%) as compared to states with primary enforcement laws (3.6%). After controlling for driver's age and restraint status and the seating row of the occupant, a 13-15 year olds was over twice as likely to be unrestrained in a secondary enforcement state as compared to a primary enforcement state (adjusted RR=2.2, 95% CI 1.5-3.1). CONCLUSIONS: States considering primary enforcement provisions to their restraint laws should consider the potential benefits these laws may have to all occupants in the vehicle, particularly young adolescents who are nearing driving age.     

Effects of enforcement intensity on alcohol impaired driving crashes

Background

Research measuring levels of enforcement has investigated whether increases in police activities (e.g., checkpoints, driving-while-intoxicated [DWI] special patrols) above some baseline level are associated with reduced crashes and fatalities. Little research, however, has attempted to quantitatively measure enforcement efforts and relate different enforcement levels to specific levels of the prevalence of alcohol-impaired driving.

Objective

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of law-enforcement intensity in a sample of communities on the rate of crashes involving a drinking driver. We analyzed the influence of different enforcement strategies and measures: (1) specific deterrence – annual number of driving-under-the-influence (DUI) arrests per capita; (2) general deterrence – frequency of sobriety checkpoint operations; (3) highly visible traffic enforcement – annual number of traffic stops per capita; (4) enforcement presence – number of sworn officers per capita; and (5) overall traffic enforcement – the number of other traffic enforcement citations per capita (i.e., seat belt citations, speeding tickets, and other moving violations and warnings) in each community.

Methods

We took advantage of nationwide data on the local prevalence of impaired driving from the 2007 National Roadside Survey (NRS), measures of DUI enforcement activity provided by the police departments that participated in the 2007 NRS, and crashes from the General Estimates System (GES) in the same locations as the 2007 NRS. We analyzed the relationship between the intensity of enforcement and the prevalence of impaired driving crashes in 22–26 communities with complete data. Log-linear regressions were used throughout the study.

Results

A higher number of DUI arrests per 10,000 driving-aged population was associated with a lower ratio of drinking-driver crashes to non-drinking-driver crashes (p = 0.035) when controlling for the percentage of legally intoxicated drivers on the roads surveyed in the community from the 2007 NRS. Results indicate that a 10% increase in the DUI arrest rate is associated with a 1% reduction in the drinking driver crash rate. Similar results were obtained for an increase in the number of sworn officers per 10,000 driving-age population.

Discussion

While a higher DUI arrest rate was associated with a lower drinking-driver crash rate, sobriety checkpoints did not have a significant relationship to drinking-driver crashes. This appeared to be due to the fact that only 3% of the on-the-road drivers were exposed to frequent sobriety checkpoints (only 1 of 36 police agencies where we received enforcement data conducted checkpoints weekly). This low-use strategy is symptomatic of the general decline in checkpoint use in the U.S. since the 1980s and 1990s when the greatest declines in alcohol-impaired-driving fatal crashes occurred. The overall findings in this study may help law enforcement agencies around the country adjust their traffic enforcement intensity in order to reduce impaired driving in their community.     

A random parameters probit model of urban and rural intersection crashes

Intersections are hazardous locations and many studies have been conducted to identify the factors contributing to the frequency and severity of intersection crashes. However, little attention has been devoted to investigating the differences between crashes at urban and rural intersections, which have different road, traffic and environmental characteristics. By applying a random parameters probit model to the data from the Canadian Province of Alberta between 2008 and 2012, we find that urban intersection crashes are more likely to be associated with hit and run behaviours, roads with higher traffic volume, wet surfaces, four lanes and skewed intersections, and crashes on weekdays and off-peak hours, whereas rural crashes are likely to be associated with increases in fatalities and injuries, roads with higher speed limits, special road features, exit and entrance terminals, gravel, curvature and two lanes, crashes during weekends, peak hours and night-time, run-off-road crashes, and police visit to crash scene. Hence, road safety professionals in urban and rural areas should consider these differences when designing and implementing counter-measures to improve intersection safety, especially their safety audits and reviews, enforcement activities and education campaigns, to target the more vulnerable times and locations in the different areas.     

“I drove after drinking alcohol” and other risky driving behaviours reported by young novice drivers

Background: Volitional risky driving behaviours such as drink- and drug-driving (i.e. substance-impaired driving) and speeding contribute to the overrepresentation of young novice drivers in road crash fatalities, and crash risk is greatest during the first year of independent driving in particular. Aims: To explore the: (1) self-reported compliance of drivers with road rules regarding substance-impaired driving and other risky driving behaviours (e.g., speeding, driving while tired), one year after progression from a Learner to a Provisional (intermediate) licence; and (2) interrelationships between substance-impaired driving and other risky driving behaviours (e.g., crashes, offences, and Police avoidance). Methods: Drivers (n = 1076; 319 males) aged 18–20 years were surveyed regarding their sociodemographics (age, gender) and self-reported driving behaviours including crashes, offences, Police avoidance, and driving intentions. Results: A relatively small proportion of participants reported driving after taking drugs (6.3% of males, 1.3% of females) and drinking alcohol (18.5% of males, 11.8% of females). In comparison, a considerable proportion of participants reported at least occasionally exceeding speed limits (86.7% of novices), and risky behaviours like driving when tired (83.6% of novices). Substance-impaired driving was associated with avoiding Police, speeding, risky driving intentions, and self-reported crashes and offences. Forty-three percent of respondents who drove after taking drugs also reported alcohol-impaired driving. Discussion and Conclusions: Behaviours of concern include drink driving, speeding, novice driving errors such as misjudging the speed of oncoming vehicles, violations of graduated driver licensing passenger restrictions, driving tired, driving faster if in a bad mood, and active punishment avoidance. Given the interrelationships between the risky driving behaviours, a deeper understanding of influential factors is required to inform targeted and general countermeasure implementation and evaluation during this critical driving period. Notwithstanding this, a combination of enforcement, education, and engineering efforts appear necessary to improve the road safety of the young novice driver, and for the drink-driving young novice driver in particular.     

Crash involvement of drivers with multiple crashes

A goal for any licensing agency is the ability to identify high-risk drivers. Kentucky data show that a significant number of drivers are repeatedly involved in crashes. The objective of this study is the development of a crash prediction model that can be used to estimate the likelihood of a driver being at fault for a near future crash occurrence. Multiple logistic regression techniques were employed using the available data for the Kentucky licensed drivers. This study considers as crash predictors the driver's total number of previous crashes, citations accumulated, the time gap between the latest two crashes, crash type, and demographic factors. The driver's total number of previous crashes was further disaggregated into the drivers' total number of previous at-fault and not-at-fault crashes. The model can be used to correctly classify at-fault drivers up to 74.56% with an overall efficiency of 63.34%. The total number of previous at-fault crash involvements, and having previous driver license suspensions and traffic school referrals are strongly associated with a driver being responsible for a subsequent crash. In addition, a driver's likelihood to be at fault in a crash is higher for very young or very old, males, drivers with both speeding and non-speeding citations, and drivers that had a recent crash involvement. Thus, the model presented here enables agencies to more actively monitor the likelihood of a driver to be at fault in a crash.     

High school driver education: further evaluation of the DeKalb County study

The DeKalb County, Georgia, study is the largest experimental evaluation of high school driver education to date. Detailed reanalyses of data from that study reveal that students assigned to an enhanced driver education program (Safe Performance Curriculum) were more likely to obtain drivers licenses, to be in car crashes and to have traffic violations than control students not assigned to driver education. Students assigned to a minimal program of high school driver education (Pre-Driver Licensing Curriculum) were also more likely than control students to obtain licenses, but the difference was smaller than for the enhanced program and they were not significantly more likely to be in crashes or to have violations. Students in the more limited course were less likely than those in the enhanced course to complete the course in a timely manner, which suggests that exposure differences may explain differences between the two groups. The results confirm that greater availability of driver education causes students to become licensed sooner, although the DeKalb study probably underestimates the effect. Because of this greater exposure, crashes and violations are incurred at an earlier age.     

Evaluation of automated speed enforcement on Loop 101 freeway in Scottsdale, Arizona

Speed cameras can reduce speeding and injury crashes, but in many communities they are confined to low-speed settings such as residential streets and school zones. In 2006 the city of Scottsdale, Arizona, implemented a 9-month pilot program to evaluate the feasibility and effects of highly visible speed camera enforcement on a busy urban freeway. This was the first use of fixed speed cameras on a major US highway. Deployment of six cameras along an 8-mile corridor was associated with large declines in mean speeds and an 88% decrease in the odds of vehicles traveling 11 mph or more above the 65 mph limit. Traffic speeds increased soon after the pilot program was suspended. In addition to reducing speeding along the enforcement corridor, speed cameras were associated with large reductions in speeding on the same highway but 25 miles away from the camera installations. However, traffic speeds were fairly stable on urban freeways in Scottsdale that were not part of the study road. Public opinion surveys found widespread concerns about speeding on the Loop 101 freeway and high levels of support for speed camera enforcement on this road.     

Female drinking and driving: recent trends in North Carolina

Data on driver licensing, DWI arrests, crashes, and fatalities in the State of North Carolina from the mid-70s to the mid-80s are analyzed to examine trends in drinking and driving by women. Findings presented are based on rates per licensed driver. Results suggest that more women are driving and are experiencing greater exposure to the hazards of drinking and driving. DWI arrest rates for women increased by 43% while rates for men decreased by 9%. Likewise, the proportion of legally intoxicated drivers among women is increasing. Women account for a growing proportion of alcohol-related (A/R) crashes and their involvement in single vehicle nighttime crashes is increasing. A dramatic decrease was observed in A/R fatalities in the male licensed driving population. This decrease was not paralleled by women. Authors conclude women will make up an increasing proportion of those arrested and convicted for DWI and will have more A/R crashes. Findings have implications for the design and implementation of education, deterrence, enforcement, and rehabilitation programs.     

Driver inattention and driver distraction in serious casualty crashes: Data from the Australian National Crash In-depth Study

Driver inattention and driver distraction represent a major problem in road safety. Although both are believed to contribute to increased crash risk, there is currently limited reliable information on their role in crashes. The current study used in-depth data from the Australian National Crash In-depth Study to investigate the role of driver distraction and inattention in serious casualty crashes. The sample included 856 crashes from 2000 to 2011, in which at least one party was admitted to hospital due to crash-related injuries. Crashes were coded using a taxonomy of driver inattention that delineates five inattention subtypes: restricted attention, misprioritised attention, neglected attention, cursory attention, and diverted attention (distraction). Approximately 45% of crashes could not be coded due to insufficient information while in an additional 15% the participant indicated the “other driver was at fault” without specifying whether inattention was involved. Of the 340 remaining cases, most showed evidence of driver inattention (57.6%) or possible inattention (5.9%). The most common subtypes of inattention were restricted attention, primarily due to intoxication and/or fatigue, and diverted attention or distraction. The most common types of distraction involved voluntary, non-driving related distractions originating within the vehicle, such as passenger interactions. The current study indicates that a majority of serious injury crashes involve driver inattention. Most forms of inattention and distraction observed are preventable. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using in-depth crash data to investigate driver inattention in casualty crashes.     

The influence of driver distraction on the severity of injuries sustained by teenage drivers and their passengers

Studies show that teenage drivers are at a higher risk for crashes. Opportunities to engage in technology and non-technology based distractions appear to be a particular concern among this age group. An ordered logit model was developed to predict the likelihood of a severe injury for these drivers and their passenger using a national crash database (the 2003, U.S. DOT-General Estimate System [GES]). As one would expect, speeding substantially increases the likelihood of severe injuries for teenage drivers and their passengers. The results of the analysis also reveal that teenage drivers have an increased likelihood of more severe injuries if distracted by a cell phone or by passengers than if the source of distraction was related to in-vehicle devices or if the driver was inattentive. Additionally, passengers of teenage drivers are more likely to sustain severe injuries when their driver is distracted by devices or passengers than with a non-distracted or inattentive driver. This supports the previous literature on teenage drivers and extends our understanding of injuries for this age group related to distraction-related crashes.