Stereotype Threat and Women's Performance in Engineering

Recent research has demonstrated that stereotype threat—the concern that others will judge one negatively due to a stereotype that exists about one's group—interferes with women's performance on standardized math and engineering exams. In the current research we find that when a shortened version of the Fundamental of Engineering Exam is described as a test that is diagnostic of ability (i.e., when stereotype threat is high) women perform worse than men on the test. When stereotype threat is reduced, however (by characterizing the test as non‐diagnostic or as not producing gender differences), women do just as well as men. The implication of these results for improving the engineering education environment is discussed.     

The impact of Stereotype Threat on the simulated driving performance of older drivers

Older drivers are perceived as being dangerous and overly cautious by other drivers. We tested the hypothesis that this negative stereotype has a direct influence on the performance of older drivers. Based on the Stereotype Threat literature, we predicted that older driving performance would be altered after exposure to a Stereotype Threat. Sixty-one older drivers aged 65 and above completed a simulated driving assessment course. Prior to testing, half of the participants were told that the objective of the study was to investigate why older adults aged 65 and above were more implicated in on-road accidents (Stereotype Threat condition) and half were showed a neutral statement. Results confirmed that exposure to the threat significantly altered driving performance. Older adults in the Stereotype Threat condition made more driving mistakes than those in the control group. Interestingly, under a Stereotype Threat condition, older adults tended to commit more speeding infractions. We also observed that domain identification (whether driving is deemed important or not) moderated the impact of the threat. Taken together, these results support recent older drivers’ performance models suggesting that the interaction between individual and social factors need to be considered when examining older drivers’ performance.     

Even highly experienced drivers benefit from a brief hazard perception training intervention

We examined the proposal that hazard perception ability is suboptimal even in highly experienced mid-age drivers. First, we replicated previous findings in which police drivers significantly outperformed highly experienced drivers on a validated video-based hazard perception test, indicating that the ability of the experienced participants had not reached ceiling despite decades of driving. Second, we found that the highly experienced drivers’ hazard perception test performance could be improved with a mere 20 min of video-based training, and this improvement remained evident after a delay of at least a week. One possible explanation as to why hazard perception skill may be suboptimal even in experienced drivers is a dearth of self-insight, potentially resulting in a lack of motivation to improve this ability. Consistent with this proposal, we found no significant relationships between self-ratings and objective measures of hazard perception ability in this group. We also found significant self-enhancement biases in the self-ratings and that participants who received training did not rate their performance (either in real driving or in the test) as having improved, contrary to what was indicated by their objective performance data.     

Stereotype threat increases the likelihood that female drivers in a simulator run over jaywalkers

Stereotype threat, or the belief that one may be the target of demeaning stereotypes, leads to performance disruptions in a variety of domains. Two experiments conducted in a driving simulator demonstrate that stereotype threat also disrupts control of an automobile. Women who were reminded of the stereotype that females are poor drivers were more than twice as likely to collide with jaywalking pedestrians than women who were not reminded of this stereotype. Experiment 2 also revealed that the magnitude of this effect was equivalent to that produced by a secondary task, suggesting that stereotype threat might diminish driving performance via a disruptive mental load.     

The value of reputation

Reputation plays a central role in human societies. Empirical and theoretical work indicates that a good reputation is valuable in that it increases one''s expected payoff in the future. Here, we explore a game that couples a repeated Prisoner''s Dilemma (PD), in which participants can earn and can benefit from a good reputation, with a market in which reputation can be bought and sold. This game allows us to investigate how the trading of reputation affects cooperation in the PD, and how participants assess the value of having a good reputation. We find that depending on how the game is set up, trading can have a positive or a negative effect on the overall frequency of cooperation. Moreover, we show that the more valuable a good reputation is in the PD, the higher the price at which it is traded in the market. Our findings have important implications for the use of reputation systems in practice.     

The effects of driving experience on responses to a static hazard perception test

Novice drivers exhibit deficits in hazard perception that are likely to increase their risk of collisions. We developed a static hazard perception test that presents still images to observers and requires them to indicate the presence of a traffic conflict that would lead to a collision. Responses to these scenes were obtained for young adult novice (N = 29) and experienced drivers (N = 27). Additionally, participants rated the hazard risk and clutter of each scene. Novice drivers rated traffic conflicts as less hazardous and responded more slowly to them. Using a subset of 21 scenes, we were able to discriminate novice and experienced young adult drivers with a classification accuracy of 78% and a scale reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of .91. The potential applications of this research include the development of standardized hazard perception tests that can be used for driver evaluation, training and licensure.     

Hazard perception as a function of target location and the field of view

A typical hazard perception test presents participants with a single-screen view of the road ahead. This study assessed how increasing this field of view would affect hazard perception abilities. Drivers were shown video clips of driving situations containing at least one hazard either on a single screen, or with the addition of side views on two separate but adjacent screens that extended the perceived worldview to approximately 180°. Mirror information was also included to allow information from behind the vehicle to be attended. Participants were instructed to press a button as soon as they saw a hazard. Faster response times were found for hazards that appeared in the centre of the central screen, than in the periphery of the central screen, with hazards that first appeared in the lateral screens responded to slowest. Additionally, responses to the hazards were faster and were more likely to occur in the three-, as compared to the single-screen condition. These results suggest that providing participants with a wider field of view, which includes more environmental cues that are related to the relevant hazardous situation increases their ability to detect hazards, and some limited support to that providing them with a wider view increases this ability even when all hazard-relevant information appear only in the central screen. A number of reasons for the three-screen advantage are discussed. This study suggests that even responses to central hazards may be under-estimated in a typical single-screen hazard perception test, and that improvements can be made for new hazard perception tests, by including visual information from the side and from behind the driver. This new methodology not only allows testing hazard perception skills in a potentially more immersive and realistic environment, but also enables to create hazard perception clips that cannot be realised in a typical single-screen test.     

Applying the motorcyclist's perspective to improve car drivers' attitudes towards motorcyclists

This study sought to provide a first crucial step in the direction of developing an intervention program aimed at improving safe attitudes and skills among car drivers towards motorcycles. We intended to improve drivers’ attitudes towards motorcyclists by exposing them to demands that motorcyclists face on the road. Car drivers were exposed to hazard perception clips taken from a motorcyclist's perspective, and interactive hazards in a motorcycle simulator. Car hazard perception clips and a car simulator were used as control conditions. A questionnaire assessed participant knowledge and attitudes towards motorcyclists before and after the intervention. After the intervention participants had more empathic- and fewer negative-attitudes, as well as safer attitudes towards motorcyclists. Self-reported attitude-change suggested that the use of motorcycle hazard perception clips was more effective than the simulator, and the intervention was most effective for those car drivers who reported the most negative attitudes prior viewing the clips or riding the simulator. Providing car drivers with a perspective of the motorcyclist may prove to be a useful tool for promoting safer attitudes towards motorcyclists.     

Using metabolic energy to quantify the subjective value of physical effort

Economists have known for centuries that to understand an individual''s decisions, we must consider not only the objective value of the goal at stake, but its subjective value as well. However, achieving that goal ultimately requires expenditure of effort. Surprisingly, despite the ubiquitous role of effort in decision-making and movement, we currently do not understand how effort is subjectively valued in daily movements. Part of the difficulty arises from the lack of an objective measure of effort. Here, we use a physiological approach to address this knowledge gap. We quantified objective effort costs by measuring metabolic cost via expired gas analysis as participants performed a reaching task against increasing resistance. We then used neuroeconomic methods to quantify each individual''s subjective valuation of effort. Rather than the diminishing sensitivity observed in reward valuation, effort was valued objectively, on average. This is significantly less than the near-quadratic sensitivity to effort observed previously in force-based motor tasks. Moreover, there was significant inter-individual variability with many participants undervaluing or overvaluing effort. These findings demonstrate that in contrast with monetary decisions in which subjective value exhibits diminishing marginal returns, effort costs are valued more objectively in low-effort reaching movements common in daily life.     

Effects of higher-order driving skill training on young, inexperienced drivers' on-road driving performance

The aim of the current study was to compare the effects of training in higher-order driving skills (e.g., perceptual, motivational, insight) and vehicle handling skill training in relation to on-road driving performance, hazard perception, attitudes to risky driving and driver confidence levels in young, inexperienced drivers. Thirty-six young drivers (23 males and 13 females, average age 16.3 years), mostly on a restricted NZ driver licence, participated in a Driver Training Research camp. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three equally sized groups according to the type of driving skill training (5 days) they received: higher-order, vehicle handling or control (no training). Professional driver assessors conducted a comprehensive driving assessment before (Baseline) and after the training (Post Training). At both time points, participants also carried out a computerised hazard perception task, and completed self-report questionnaires to assess attitudes to risky driving and driver confidence. In terms of on road driving, the participants who received higher-order driving skill training showed a statistically significant improvement in relation to visual search and the composite driving measure. This was accompanied by an improvement in hazard perception, safer attitudes to close following and to dangerous overtaking and a decrease in driving related confidence. The participants who received vehicle handling skill training showed significant improvements in relation to their on-road direction control, speed choice and the composite driving score. However, this group showed no improvement in hazard perception, attitudes to risky driving or driver confidence. The findings will be discussed in the context of driver training as a viable crash prevention intervention in regard to young, inexperienced drivers.     

Enhancing hazard avoidance in teen-novice riders

Research suggests that novice drivers’ safety performance is inferior to that of experienced drivers in different ways. One of the most critical skills related to accident avoidance by a novice driver is the detection, recognition and reaction to traffic hazards; it is called hazard perception and is defined as the ability to identify potentially dangerous traffic situations. The focus of this research is to assess how far a motorcycle simulator could improve hazard avoidance skills in teenagers. Four hundred and ten participants (207 in the experimental group and 203 in the control group) took part in this research. Results demonstrated that the mean proportion of avoided hazards increases as a function of the number of tracks performed in the virtual training. Participants of the experimental group after the training had a better proportion of avoided hazards than participants of the control group with a passive training based on a road safety lesson. Results provide good evidence that training with the simulator increases the number of avoided accidents in the virtual environment. It would be reasonable to explain this improvement by a higher level of hazard perception skills.     

How realistic are older drivers’ ratings of their driving ability?

One strategy that can be used by older drivers to guard against age-related declines in driving capability is to regulate their driving. This strategy presumes that self-judgments of driving capability are realistic. We found no significant relationships between older drivers’ hazard perception skill ratings and performance on an objective and validated video-based hazard perception test, even when self-ratings of performance on specific scenarios in the test were used. Self-enhancement biases were found across all components of driving skill, including hazard perception. If older drivers’ judgments of their driving capability are unrealistic, then this may compromise the effectiveness of any self-restriction strategies to reduce crash risk.     

The effects of non-evaluative feedback on drivers’ self-evaluation and performance

Drivers’ tend to overestimate their competences, which may result in risk taking behavior. Providing drivers with feedback has been suggested as one of the solutions to overcome drivers’ inaccurate self-evaluations. In practice, many tests and driving simulators provide drivers with non-evaluative feedback, which conveys information on the level of performance but not on what caused the performance. Is this type of feedback indeed effective in reducing self-enhancement biases? The current study aimed to investigate the effect of non-evaluative performance feedback on drivers’ self-evaluations using a computerized hazard perception test. A between-subjects design was used with one group receiving feedback on performance in the hazard perception test while the other group not receiving any feedback. The results indicated that drivers had a robust self-enhancement bias in their self-evaluations regardless of the presence of performance feedback and that they systematically estimated their performance to be higher than they actually achieved in the test. Furthermore, they devalued the credibility of the test instead of adjusting their self-evaluations in order to cope with the negative feelings following the failure feedback. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these counterproductive effects of non-evaluative feedback.     

A simulator study of the effects of singing on driving performance

This study aimed to investigate how singing while driving affects driver performance. Twenty-one participants completed three trials of a simulated drive concurrently while performing a peripheral detection task (PDT); each trial was conducted either without music, with participants listening to music, or with participants singing along to music. It was hypothesised that driving performance and PDT response times would be impaired, and that driver subjective workload ratings would be higher, when participants were singing to music compared to when there was no music or when participants were listening to music. As expected, singing while driving was rated as more mentally demanding, and resulted in slower and more variable speeds, than driving without music. Listening to music was associated with the slowest speeds overall, and fewer lane excursions than the no music condition. Interestingly, both music conditions were associated with slower speed-adjusted PDT response times and significantly less deviation within the lane than was driving without music. Collectively, results suggest that singing while driving alters driving performance and impairs hazard perception while at the same time increasing subjective mental workload. However, singing while driving does not appear to affect driving performance more than simply listening to music. Further, drivers’ efforts to compensate for the increased mental workload associated with singing and listening to music by slowing down appear to be insufficient, as evidenced by relative increases in PDT response times in these two conditions compared to baseline.     

Hazard perception in novice and experienced drivers: The effects of sleepiness

One driver skill that has been found to correlate with crash risk is hazard perception ability. The purpose of this study was to investigate how hazard perception latencies change between high and low sleepiness for a high risk group (novice drivers) and a lower risk group (experienced drivers). Thirty-two novice drivers (aged 17-24 years) and 30 experienced drivers (aged 28-36) completed a validated video-based hazard perception test, in which participants were asked to anticipate genuine traffic conflicts in footage filmed from the driver's perspective, with separate groups tested at either 10 a.m. (lower sleepiness) or at 3 a.m. (higher sleepiness). We found a significant interaction between sleepiness and experience, indicating that the hazard perception skills of the more experienced drivers were relatively unaffected by mild increases in sleepiness while the inexperienced drivers were significantly slowed. The findings suggest that the disproportionate sleepiness-related accident involvement of young, inexperienced drivers could be partly due to a slowing of their ability to anticipate traffic hazards.     

Responsibility allocation for child injury: victim age and positive vs. negative framing of manufacturer's safety policy

Two experiments examined allocation of responsibility in the context of a fictitious, but realistic, product-use scenario in which a young girl suffers serious brain injury after consuming a product with a non-obvious hazard (marshmallows). The research investigated whether the responsibility allocated to the various parties would depend on the age of the child and whether the manufacturer took, or failed to take, precautions. Scenarios given to participants stated the age of the girl as 1½ years, 4 years, 8 years, or 16 years and had positive, negative, or no supplemental information about the manufacturer and its safety practices. Both experiments showed that the parents were considered most responsible for a young child's injury, but the allocation decreased with the older child. When negative information about the manufacturer's safety practices was given, allocations of responsibility for the girl's injury to the manufacturer increased significantly. In Experiment 2, the presence of warnings in the positive supplemental information condition reduced the manufacturer's responsibility for the oldest (16-year old) child. Negative impressions due to poor safety practices by manufacturers can lead to increased levels of responsibility allocated for injury. Primary caretakers are responsible for the safety of young children, but as they get older, children are viewed as being more responsible for their own safety. These results have implications for product-development decisions including labelling. They also point out a role for human factors professionals before and during product-related forensic litigation.     

Can child-pedestrians’ hazard perception skills be enhanced?

ObjectiveTraffic collisions yield a substantial rate of morbidity and injury among child-pedestrians. We explored the formation of an innovative hazard perception training intervention – Child-pedestrians Anticipate and Act Hazard Perception Training (CA²HPT). Training was based upon enhancing participants’ ability to anticipate potential hazards by exposing them to an array of traffic scenes viewed from different angles.MethodTwenty-four 7–9-year-olds have participated. Trainees underwent a 40-min intervention of observing typical residential traffic scenarios in a simulated dome projection environment while engaging in a hazard detection task. Trainees were encouraged to note differences between the scenarios presented to them from separate angles (a pedestrian's point-of-view and a higher perspective angle). Next, trainees and control group members were required to perform crossing decision tasks.ResultsTrainees were found to be more aware of potential hazards related to restricted field of view relative to control.ConclusionsChild pedestrians are responsive to training and actively detecting materialized hazards may enrich child-pedestrians’ ability to cross roads.     

Managing children's risk of injury in the home: Does parental teaching about home safety reduce young children's hazard interactions?

Past research confirms that parents extend much effort to teach their young children about safety, but little is known about this process. The present study examined mothers’ use of teaching as a strategy to manage young children's risk of home injury and how this impacts children's hazard interactions. Mothers of three-year-olds completed an in-home room-by-room interview in which they identified injury hazards that concern them, reported on use of teaching to manage risk of injury from these hazards, rated children's understanding of these safety issues and compliance with behavioral guidelines regarding these safety issues, and reported on children's recent interactions with these hazards. They also completed questionnaire measures of how difficult the child is to manage and the child's typical level of risk taking. Results revealed that children's understanding of safety impacted both their compliance and hazard interactions, moderating the impact of risk taking on compliance and also the impact of children's difficult-to-manage score on hazard interactions. These findings demonstrate that teaching strategies need to effectively enhance children's understanding of the safety issue in order to reduce children's risk of hazard interactions.     

产品的危险感知中性别差异的研究

通过对50个产品在7个相关维度上进行评估的实验,研究了危险感知的主要影响因素及人们阅读提供的警告标志的主要影响因素,同时还研究性别差异对于相关维度的影响.方差分析结果表明,女性实验者对于潜在危险给予更高的重视程度并更愿意去读相关的警告标志.回归结果表明,警惕程度是影响危险程度评估及阅读的最主要因素.     

Hazard perception of motorcyclists and car drivers

The current study compares hazard perception (HP) performance of 50 male drivers with and without a motorcycle license in order to generalize results. A video-based HP test, measuring reaction times to traffic scenes, was administered to these two groups of drivers. Participants with a motorcycle license performed better than participants without a motorcycle license. ANOVA indicated that learning improved linearly for participants with a motorcycle license but not for participants without a motorcycle license. No evidence that HP was predicted by age was found. HP scores for drivers who reported previous involvement in an accident were lower than for those who reported not being involved in an accident. The results are discussed in the context of sensitivity and response bias models.