High-performance polymer coatings for carbon steel heat exchanger tubes in geothermal environments

The most critical issue in developing thermal conductive coatings for the interior surfaces of heat exchanger tubes made from mild carbon steel (MCS), which are used in geothermal power plants at temperatures ranging from 110° to 89°C, is the deposition of scales. These scales, induced by the brine, chemically adhere to the coating surfaces. One of the major factors governing the formation of a strong interfacial bond at interfaces between the coatings and scales was the brine-promoted hydrothermal oxidation of the coatings. In seeking coating unsusceptible to hydrothermal oxidation, two semi-crystalline thermoplastic polymers, polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-blended PPS, were applied as interior surface coatings to the zinc phosphated MCS tubes. The PPS coating surfaces suffered some oxidation caused by their chemical affinity for FeCl₂ in geothermal brine. FeCl₂-promoted oxidation of PPS surfaces not only incorporated more oxygen into them, generating a sulfide sulfone sulfonic acid conformational transformation within the PPS, but also caused the disintegration of PPS, yielding fragmental polychloroaryl compound and ferrous sulfate (FeSO₄) derivatives. The FeSO₄ reaction product formed at the interfaces between the scale and PPS coating was soluble in water, so that the coatings could be easily removed by highly pressurized water. The oxidation of PPS was considerably inhibited by blending PTFE into it, forming coating surface unsusceptible to hydrothermal oxidation reactions with hot brine. The major reason for such inhibition of oxidation was the formation of a chemically inert PTFE layer segregated from the PPS layer at the outermost surface site of the coating. Hence, the scale easily flaked off from the PTFE-blended PPS coating surfaces. This characteristic of surface was similar to that of the stainless steel surfaces. Nevertheless, both PPS and PTFE-blended PPS coatings can be classified as scale-free coatings.     

Efficiency of an air heat exchanger

Experimental and calculated dependences of the coefficient of thermal efficiency of a heat exchanger are presented for various effective diameters of the internal channels. It is shown that a region of a local maximum of the coefficient of thermal efficiency exists in the regime of a turbulent flow of the coolant. Translated from Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhurnal, Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 97–102, January–February, 1998.     

我国地源热泵规范中地下换热器的计算方法讨论

对国内外土壤源热泵地埋管换热器常用计算方法的对比进行了阐述,根据我国地源热泵系统工程技术规范(GB50366-2005)的地埋管换热器计算方法,对某实际工程在夏季工况下的地埋管长度进行了计算,并对计算中存在的几点问题进行了分析,就布置方式和地埋管的间距对地层热阻的影响得到了初步结论.     

土壤耦合热泵系统垂直埋管换热器性能影响因素的模拟分析

采用对钻孔内、外2个传热空间分别讨论的传热分析方法,建立土壤耦合热泵系统垂直埋管换热器传热的数学模型。模拟分析冬季换热过程中埋管周围土壤温度的变化,得出取热工况下地埋管换热器换热性能的影响因素。模拟结果将有助于提高热泵系统的循环经济性能。     

冷水机组与板式换热器联合运行节能分析

现代工厂在冬季冷负荷需求量较少,易造成冷水机组频繁启停,甚至由于冷却水温度太低,造成冷水机组无法启动的问题。可以通过冷水机组和板式换热器联合运行的优化控制策略,充分利用冷却塔,通过板式换热器为生产设备和空调系统提供冷冻水,尽量减少冷水机组启动的时间,并保证系统的稳定运行,解决冷水机组频繁启停以及启动困难的问题,达到节能减排和提高冷水机组的运行效率和延长使用寿命的目的。     

Poly(phenylenesulfide)-based coatings for carbon steel heat exchanger tubes in geothermal environments

To inhibit corrosion and fouling by calcium silicate and silica scales of the carbon steel heat exchanger tubes in geothermal power plants operating at brine temperature of 160°C, their internal surfaces were lined with high-temperature performance poly(phenylenesulfide) (PPS)-based coating systems. The systems included the PPS containing polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) as an anti-oxidant additive, silicon carbide (SiC) as a thermally conductive filler, and aluminum oxide-rich calcium aluminate (ACA) as an abrasive wear resistant filler. Then, the lined tubes underwent an eleven-month-long field exposure at the site of power plant. The results from the post-test analyses of the exposed liners revealed that these PPS coating systems had an excellent thermal stability, and satisfyingly withstood this brine temperature, and also greatly resisted the permeation of brine, demonstrating that they adequately protect the tubes against corrosion in a wet, harsh geothermal environment. Furthermore, modifying the surfaces of the PPS top layer with PTFE, retarded the hydrothermal oxidation of the liner, thereby reducing significantly the rate of scale deposition and creating surfaces unsusceptible to reactions with scales. Thus, all the scales deposited on the liner's surfaces were readily scoured off by hydroblasting at a very low pressure. By contrast, although the stainless steel tubes had a great protection against corrosion, the formation of passive oxide layers at their outermost surface sites was detrimental in that they became more susceptible to scale deposition and developed strong adherence to the scales. As a result, the high-pressure hydroblasting was required to remove this scale adhering to the tubes' surfaces.     

Impact of a vertical geothermal heat exchanger on the solar fraction of a solar cooling system

This paper presents the influence on the solar fraction of coupling a Solar Cooling System (SCS) with a Geothermal Heat Exchanger (GHX). The SCS analysis was made using a mathematical model and was supported by experimental data of a vertical GHX. First, the cooling capacity of the SCS was calculated, considering the cooling load required for a building of 420 m³. The results show that a 12.30 kW cooling capacity SCS would be necessary to satisfy the maximum cooling load requirement during the summer. A 1 kW PV array was considered to assist the SCS. With the constructed GHX a soil temperature model was validated to estimate the temperature of the output water at different GHX depths. The solar fraction meets between 10 and 23% of the energy demand when the condenser is air cooled. However, when a GHX of 1, 2, 4 and 10 m is implemented the solar fraction increases.     

Failure analysis of stress corrosion cracking in heat exchanger tubes during start-up operation

The cracking failure of a new heat exchanger during first start-up operation has been analyzed. Through the investigation of the operating history of the equipment, analysis of the chemical compositions of tube material and corrosion products, metallographic test of specimens with cracks, the cracking mode can be described as the Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) of austenitic stainless steel. This kind of cracking was induced by the chloride in high temperature steam and tensile stress. The residual tensile stress due to seal expansion has been proved by numerical calculation. The pre-heating steam which was polluted by the catalyst with chloride is the main reason for the tube cracking in this case.     

Application of an embossed plate heat exchanger to adsorption chiller

The present research conducted a parametric study on an embossed plate heat exchanger (plate HX) type adsorption chiller with SWS-1L and water pair, using a numerical method. The plate HX has a relatively high heat transfer capacity and compact size, and this study is a first attempt to apply the plate HX as a new type of adsorption chiller, as an improved alterative to the fin-tube type heat exchanger. A feasibility study was conducted on the base model and the result is comparable to the value for existing fin-tube type adsorption chillers. Furthermore, a parameter study was conducted for seven important design parameters, embossing diameter ratio, embossing height, embossing pitch, bed thickness, plate thickness, heating temperature and heat transfer fluid velocity. The results provided guidelines for the optimal designs of plate HX type adsorption chiller. The optimal values of COP and SCP were 0.5118 and 662.8 W kg⁻¹, respectively.     

减小液化装置氧氮换热器温差的优化操作

YPON-12500/7130型液化装置氧氮换热器中抽管道不畅通,导致氧氮换热器温差过大,冷量损失严重。通过优化操作流程,使氧氮换热器中抽管道畅通,不仅解决了氧氮换热器温差过大、冷量损失大的问题,而且大大提高了设备运行的安全性。简介液化装置流程,分析优化操作的具体措施,通过计算分析取得的经济效益。     

A heat exchanger model for air-to-refrigerant fin-and-tube heat exchanger with arbitrary fin sheet

A new model for simulating air-to-refrigerant fin-and-tube heat exchangers, with arbitrary fin sheet which encompasses variable tube diameters, variable tube locations, variable tube pitches, internal as well as external jagged edges, variable number of tubes per bank and variable location of fin cuts, is introduced. This model is based on a segment-by-segment approach and is developed to be a general purpose and flexible simulation tool. To account for fin conduction and air propagation through the heat exchanger, it is spatially modeled on a Cartesian grid. A new methodology for air side propagation, required for arbitrary fin sheets, is introduced. The model prediction is validated against experimental data for a condenser using R410A as the working fluid. The predicted results agree within ±5% of overall heat load, and ±25% for total refrigerant pressure drop.     

Erosion in the tube entrance region of an air-cooled heat exchanger

Erosion in the tube entrance region of a typical air-cooled heat exchanger is numerically predicted. The erosion rates are obtained for different flow rates and particle sizes assuming low particle concentration. The erosion prediction is based on using a mathematical model for simulating the fluid velocity field and another model for simulating the motion of solid particles. The fluid velocity model is based on the solution of the time-averaged governing equations of 3-D turbulent flow while the particle-tracking model is based on the solution of the governing equation of each particle motion taking into consideration the viscous and gravity forces as well as the effect of particle rebound behavior. The computational model was validated against available experimental data and the comparison resulted in a good agreement. The investigation covered particle sizes from 10 to 350 μm and inlet flow velocities from 0.18 to 4.5 m/s. The results show that the location and number of eroded tubes depend mainly on the particle size and flow velocity at the header inlet. The total rate of erosion was found to increase exponentially with flow velocity. At high flow velocities, the maximum total erosion rate results from large particles and the effect is reversed at low velocities. Similarly, the tube penetration rate was found to increase with the increase of flow velocity for all particle sizes. At the typical velocity of 1.1 m/s, the minimum tube lifetime was caused by the 350 μm particles and the maximum was caused by the 200 μm particles. Based on the obtained results, it is well established that erosion cannot be totally avoided so long as solid particles are present in the fluid. However, the threshold velocity below which erosion is negligible can be accurately defined if an acceptable lifetime (or penetration rate) is defined.     

双层主冷空分设备调试中的正确操作及分析

介绍了双层主冷空分设备初次调试中出现的氧、氮产品不达标、主塔工况波动大以及制氩系统工况难以建立的现象及原因,采取相应措施后,空分设备调试成功。     

SO2 heat exchanger failure

Critical heat exchanger components are usually manufactured from durable steels, such as stainless steel, which exhibit good strength and corrosion resistance. Failure of a heat exchanger occurred due to specification of a plain carbon steel that did not survive service in the SO₂ vapor environment. However, failure analysis showed that cavitation erosion was the responsible failure mechanism, not corrosion as might be expected.     

板翅式换热器的传热计算

介绍了板翅式换热器的结构形式,通过传热方程式推导出了翅片效率、表面效率以及流动阻力的计算公式,为板翅式换热器的计算提供依据。     

一种新型板式换热器

介绍一种区别于传统人字形波纹板式换热器的新型微板换热器,该换热器具有压降小而换热能力强,材料消耗少,可靠性好,制冷剂充注量小,设计灵活等特点,同时介绍其在应用和节能减排上的优势。     

Specialist heat transfer service aids heat exchanger designers

The Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service offered at UK Atomic Energy Authority, Harwell is described with particular emphasis on its applications to the cryogenics industry.     

Multichannel low temperature heat exchanger

A new type of multichannel low temperature heat exchanger is described which is mainly designed for liquefiers and refrigerators with small and average capacity.The heat exchanger consists of one or more pairs of tubes soldered along their length, which are tightly coiled around a cylindrical casing so that one of them always remains in the periphery. The tubes are wrapped tightly by a second cylindrical casing in such a way that a corresponding number of channels is formed among the different coils of the soldered tube couples and the two casings.The experimentally obtained criterium equations are given and the formulas derived from them for calculation of the heat exchanger.