Fracture prediction of thin plates under hemi-spherical punch with calibration and experimental verification

The response of thin clamped plates subjected to static punch indentation is investigated experimentally, analytically and numerically to determine the onset of fracture. The accumulated equivalent plastic strain with stress triaxiality as a weighing function is introduced as ductile fracture criterion in the finite-element simulation and analytical prediction. The fracture criterion was calibrated by finite-element simulations of uniaxial tensile tests. Based on the calibration, and calculated distributions and histories of stress and strain, the critical location, and penetration to fracture were predicted within 5–10% accuracy for three punch radii.The plots of force–penetration and locations of fracture initiation in the static punch indentation tests were compared with finite-element simulations and analytical approximations showing good agreement. The transverse deflection profiles of the plates at the point of fracture obtained numerically were shown to agree well with the closed-form solution derived by taking into account a variable stress ratio and varying stress triaxiality. The strain distribution along the plate radius is influenced by the friction between the interfaces of punch and plate. By changing the friction coefficient, the fracture-forming limit diagram was constructed numerically. The present procedure can replace the time-consuming experimental technique in which the strain path is controlled by changing the radius of a cut off.     

光学玻璃亚表面损伤深度预测及实验研究

为了进一步揭示超声振动辅助磨削加工机理,建立了超声振动辅助磨削亚表面损伤深度与断裂韧性的预测模型,设计几何形状随机的单颗磨粒超声振动压痕实验和超声振动辅助磨削实验,调查两种情况下K9光学玻璃压痕变形区域形貌特征,提出一种适用于超声振动和非超声振动两种加载条件的等效断裂韧性计算方法,并通过超声振动辅助磨削实验来验证预测模型的可靠性。实验结果表明,超声振动可以有效增加K9光学玻璃抵抗断裂的能力,降低亚表面损伤程度,且预测模型与实验结果具有良好的一致性。     

Numerical simulation of fine-blanking process using a mixed finite element method

In order to achieve a more intensive understanding of the forming mechanism of the fine-blanking process, a numerical simulation has been carried out by using a mixed displacement/pressure (u/p) finite element method. According to the special requirement of the fine-blanking technique, the major process attributes, such as the vee-ring, the ejector and the edge radii of tools, have been taken into account in the finite element model. The punch–die clearance was set to 0.5% of the thickness of the workpiece. To verify the effectiveness of the simulation, the equivalent strain on the sheared surface of a SS400 steel specimen has been determined experimentally. The experimental values of the equivalent strain have been estimated by measuring the relative displacements of the local grids pre-etched on the meridian plane of the specimen. The results of the finite element simulation are in proper agreement with the experimental findings. The distributions of the shear stress and the equivalent plastic strain have been computed for discussion. Moreover, a diagram of the blanking force versus the punch penetration has also been constructed. In order to investigate the fracture mechanism in the fine-blanking process, the concept of damage mechanics has been applied. By using a void growth model, the evolution of damage at different stages of the fine-blanking has been evaluated. It has been realized that the compressive hydrostatic stress built up by the fine-blanking fixture plays an important role to suppress the initiation of macrocracks.     

Dynamic mechanical properties of photo resist thin films

Photo resist thin films have mainly been used and investigated for versatile applications of micro electronic mechanical systems because of its outstanding aspect ratio and attainable film thickness. An accurate structure properties derived from validated material characterization is required in engineering applications. In this work, dynamic responses of photo resist thin films are tested by a nanoindentation in association with a dynamic mechanical analysis, where the thin film is coated on a silicon wafer by spin coating. The results show that the storage modulus of the photo resist thin film remains constant at the beginning and then increases as the indentation depth increases. Meanwhile, the loss modulus increases as the indentation depth increases. Varying the film thickness shows that the substrate effect plays an important role in determining the dynamic properties of thin films. However, the results agree well with the bulk material when the amplitude of nanoindentation is relatively small. It illustrates the dynamic mechanical analysis can be an efficient method to characterize the viscoelastic properties of thin films, but proper attention on the test parameters is needed.     

Analysis of conical tool perforation of ductile metal sheets

The perforation of a ductile metal sheet with a conical tool is accompanied by elasto–plastic bending, stretching, plastic flow and perforation initiation and propagation and ultimately it results in material fracture in the form of petals. The number and size of petals depends on the sheet thickness, material properties, tool angle, anisotropy in the material and indentation speed. In this work the mathematical relations for the fracture mechanism has been developed to analyze different parameters’ response and evaluate fracture toughness of the metal sheets of various thickness using computer code based on this analysis.     

Investigation of mechanical and tribological properties of amorphous diamond-like carbon coatings

We investigated the mechanical and tribological properties of amorphous diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings deposited on Si(100) by a pulsed bias deposition technique. Tribological studies were performed using a pin-on-disc (POD) apparatus under a normal load of 6.25 N and at 10% relative humidity, with a ruby pin as a slider. Hardness measurements were performed using a nanoindenter and apparent fracture toughness using indentation techniques. We studied the influence of residual stresses on apparent fracture toughness. The data revealed that the thickness, hardness and compressive stress of the coating play different roles in the apparent fracture toughness. Crack initiation is influenced by the thickness and hardness of the coating, whereas crack propagation is influenced by the compressive stress in the film. The apparent fracture toughness of DLC coatings increased with coating hardness.     

Mechanical characterization of micro/nanoscale structures for MEMS/NEMS applications using nanoindentation techniques

Mechanical properties of micro/nanoscale structures are needed to design reliable micro/nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS). Micro/nanomechanical characterization of bulk materials of undoped single-crystal silicon and thin films of undoped polysilicon, SiO(2), SiC, Ni-P, and Au have been carried out. Hardness, elastic modulus and scratch resistance of these materials were measured by nanoindentation and microscratching using a nanoindenter. Fracture toughness was measured by indentation using a Vickers indenter. Bending tests were performed on the nanoscale silicon beams, microscale Ni-P and Au beams using a depth-sensing nanoindenter. It is found that the SiC film exhibits higher hardness, elastic modulus and scratch resistance as compared to other materials. In the bending tests, the nanoscale Si beams failed in a brittle manner with a flat fracture surface. The notched Ni-P beam showed linear deformation behavior followed by abrupt failure. The Au beam showed elastic-plastic deformation behavior. FEM simulation can well predict the stress distribution in the beams studied. The nanoindentation, scratch and bending tests used in this study can be satisfactorily used to evaluate the mechanical properties of micro/nanoscale structures for use in MEMS/NEMS.     

On cropping and related processes

Two distinct aspects of cropping and related processes are considered, (i) the maximum in punch force caused by plastic instability and (ii) the initiation and propagation of cracks after the onset of plastic flow.An expression for punch travel at the peak load is derived in terms of the work hardening index of the workpiece, its thickness and state of prestrain. Good agreement is found with experimental results from a variety of sources. The expression is also modified to include cases where cracks appear before the peak in load.A re-examination of experimental autographic punch load-punch penetration traces shows that it is possible, within the limitations of a single shear plane model, to partition the total work of deformation into flow and fracture components. It would seem that crack propagation in cropping or blanking starts when the incremental energy consumed by cracking plus flow is smaller than the alternative process of carrying on flowing over a larger plastic volume with no cracking. Estimates for fracture toughness are possible by this method, e.g. 500–600 lbf-in/in² for brass and aluminium and 170 lbf-in/in² for lead from the results of Chang and Swift[1]. A criterion for the occurrence of multiple cracking on the cropped faces is derived in terms of toughness, flow stress and workpiece/punch geometry and is shown to agree with experimental observations.An appendix highlights some more general aspects of the area of combined flow and fracture, and discusses how cracks in plastic flow fields may be identified and dealt with analytically.     

In situ analysis of the fragmentation of polystyrene films within sliding contacts

Fracture processes of thin (10–100 μm) polystyrene films on PMMA substrates have been investigated within macroscopic single-asperity sliding contacts with rigid spheres. Using the resources of in situ contact visualization, the development of cracks has been analyzed under both elastic and plastic conditions for various values of the ratio of the contact radius to the film thickness. Under elastic contact conditions, damage mechanisms were dominated by the formation of a network of regularly spaced cracks at the leading edge of the contact. These processes were analyzed in the light of a fragmentation model based on contact mechanics simulations of the stress field induced within the cracked films. It emerged from this contact mechanics analysis that the mean spacing between adjacent cracks can be correlated to the strength of the polymer coating.     

Wear-Resistant PTFE/SiO2 Nanoparticle Composite Films

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a polymer that is well known for its exceptional tribological properties and, as such, it is commonly used to reduce the coefficient of friction between surfaces. In recent years it has also been established that by incorporating nanoparticle fillers in PTFE, it is possible to extend the polymer's life by reducing its wear rate. Although much study has been placed on bulk PTFE, very little study has been focused on thin films. This article demonstrates that SiO ₂ nanoparticles can be used as a filler to significantly reduce the wear of PTFE thin films while also maintaining a low coefficient of friction. The wear resistance and coefficient of friction of PTFE/SiO ₂ composite films on stainless steel substrates were tested using a linear reciprocating tribometer and compared to pure PTFE films and bare stainless steel to evaluate the benefit of incorporating the SiO ₂ filler in the film. The composite films showed a significant improvement in wear resistance when compared to pure PTFE films. The coefficient of friction for the composite film remained low and stable during a 50 g normal load friction test for a duration of approximately 300 cycles, whereas that of PTFE showed an increasing trend at onset. In addition, of 1.7 and 3.3 wt% SiO ₂ concentrations in solution, 3.3 wt% SiO ₂ showed better performance, with a much higher wear resistance than that of 1.7% SiO ₂ after being subjected to a 1,000-cycle abrasive wear test.     

Modelling transverse cracking damage in thin, filament-wound tubes subjected to lateral indentation followed by internal pressure

Transverse cracking is a typical mode of damage in laminated composites. A continuum damage model has been established for the constitutive relationship which describes initiation and evolution of such damage. The constitutive model has been incorporated into an FE structural analysis using a commercial code, ABAQUS, via one of its user-defined subroutines, UGENS. The developed user subroutine can be applied to simulate transverse cracking damage processes in general laminated composites. As an example, the response of a thin ±55 filament-wound tube subjected to loading and unloading by lateral indentation has been analysed. The predicted load displacement curves and damage growth and stress and strain distributions in each lamina are presented. One of the emphases in this paper is on sequential loading. Subsequent to complete unloading, the tube is subjected to a different loading condition, internal pressure, and simulation of the deformation and damage process is continued. The results have been discussed and compared with experimental data wherever available.     

Rheology of Thin Organic Films

This paper deals with the effects of contact pressure and temperature on the shear strength of thin organic films. The experimental method involves depositing the material as thin films (ca. 3 nm to 500 nm) on smooth glass surfaces. The film is sheared by sliding over it indenters of fired glass. By varying the indenter radius from 4 μm to 2.5 mm and the load from 10 mg to 20 g, the contact pressure may be varied from 10⁷ Pa (1.4 × 10³ P.s.i.) to 8 × 10⁹ Pa (12 × 10⁵ p.s.i.). The temperature dependence of the shear strength is also studied. Two types of organic materials have been investigated. These range from simple low molecular weight compounds such as stearates, to more complex high molecular weight polymers, for example P.M.M.A.

The shear strength of these films has been compared with the bulk shear properties and consideration has been given to the molecular processes occurring during shear.     

Transfer film evolution and its role in promoting ultra-low wear of a PTFE nanocomposite

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is an important solid lubricant with an unusually high wear rate. For a half-century, fillers have been used to reduce PTFE wear by >100× with >10% loading through hypothesized mechanisms involving mechanical load support, crack arresting, and transfer film adhesion. More recently it was discovered that specific nanoparticles provide a unique nanoscale reinforcement mechanism enabling unprecedented wear reductions of 10,000× with as little as 0.1% nano-fillers. Although the mechanisms responsible for this dramatic improvement remain unclear, there is substantial evidence that the transfer film plays a critical role. This paper uses interrupted microscopy measurements to investigate the evolution of transfer film development for an ultra-low wear PTFE nanocomposite. The run-in wear rates were similar to those of more traditional PTFE composites and transfer films consisted of large plate-like debris. Although the run-in wear rate and debris size decreased monotonically with distance, the run-in transfer films were removed each cycle. Detectible debris vanished and wear rates approached zero at an abrupt transition. During this ultra-low wear transition period, nanoscale and oxidized fragments of PTFE were transferred to the counterface. Most of these fragments persisted for the duration of the test and initiated the transfer film by progressively scavenging trace material from the bulk, growing into small islands, and merging with neighboring islands. The results of this study reflect a complex interplay involving elements of transfer film adhesion, chemistry, debris morphology, and mechanics.     

金属焊接接头疲劳裂纹萌生寿命估算方法的研究

疲劳裂纹萌生阶段在整个疲劳破坏过程中占有极为重要的地位，而萌生阶段的裂纹体损伤规律用长裂纹断裂力学方法是无法确定的。这里以萌生阶段中塑性滞回能作为控制参量，根据实验数据拟合出疲劳损伤的连续曲线，得到裂纹萌生寿命估算公式。     

Fracture predicting in bulk metal forming

An important concern in forming is whether the desired deformation can be accomplished without failure of the work material. This paper describes the utilization of ductile fracture criteria in conjunction with the finite element method for predicting failures in cold bulk metal forming. Four previously published ductile fracture criteria are selected, and their relative accuracy for predicting and quantifying fracture initiation sites is investigated. Experiments with ring, cylindrical, tapered and flanged upset samples are performed to investigate the validity of the workability criteria under conditions of stress and strain similar to those usually found in bulk metal forming processes. The implementation of ductile fracture criteria into a rigid—plastic finite element computer program is presented. Local stress and strain distributions throughout the deformation are computed and compared with experimental measurements. A general good agreement is found. However, only two of these workability criteria have successfully predicted the location at which fracture initiates for all the upset tests performed in this work. The paper concludes with a discussion of the importance of the critical damage at fracture to remain independent from the technological processes.     

Micromechanism of wear at polymer-metal sliding interface

Sliding experiments between polymer and steel surfaces were conducted to investigate the mechanism of wear. The nature of fracture as well as the changes in the surface as a result of sliding were studied by scanning and transmission electron microscopy and differential thermal analysis. Electron microscopy revealed that, in the case of PTFE, high density polyethylene and polyoxymethylene at very low velocity, where heating at the interface can be neglected, thin films are sheared and are laid across the sliding surface. The shearing of films was anticipated to be due to interlamellar shear. At high velocities it was probable that the same mechanism of interlamellar shear for wear was also present for PTFE. Thermal softening or melting was not detected in PTFE by differential thermal analysis even at high velocities, whereas for the other two polymers it was shown by scanning electron microscopy and differential thermal analysis that thermal softening or even melting was the important mechanism of wear at high velocities.     

含裂纹板断裂韧度厚度效应的理论与应用

从理论角度对断裂韧度厚度效应进行了研究。在线弹性断裂力学与含裂纹板的二维位移场的基础上,给出分离变量型的具有待定函数的三维位移场的表达式,进而通过几何方程与物理方程获取三维应变场和三维应力场。进一步,通过虚位移原理,使用变分方法建立待定函数所应满足的支配方程与边界条件,从而确定待定函数。基于上述分析,建立一个断裂韧度与试样厚度关系的理论表达式。最后通过两种试验材料LY12CZ(L-T)与TC4(L-T)进行了验证。     

A theory of smeared continuum damage mechanics

This paper considers smeared continuum damage mechanics based on the equivalent elliptical crack representation of a local damage. This approach provides a means of utilizing the crack energies derived in fracture mechanics, and of identifying the local damage state from local stress and strain information. The strain energy equivalence principle is used to derive the effective continuum elastic properties of a damaged solid in terms of the undamaged elastic properties and a scalar damage variable. The scalar damage variable is used to develop a consistent damage evolution equation. The combination of representing local damage as an equivalent elliptical crack, the determination of effective elastic properties using a strain energy equivalence principle, and a consistent damage evolution equation yields a simple, yet powerful local approach for continuum damage analysis     

BGA结构无铅微焊点的低周疲劳行为研究

基于塑性应变能密度概念提出微焊点低周疲劳裂纹萌生、扩展和寿命预测模型,阐明其与连续介质损伤力学的联系,评估应力三轴度对预测模型的影响,并通过试验和数值计算相结合的方法确定出微米尺度球栅阵列(Ball grid array,BGA)结构单颗Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu无铅焊点(高度为500～100 μm,焊盘直径为480 μm)疲劳裂纹萌生和扩展模型中的相关常数。研究结果表明,疲劳裂纹萌生和扩展循环数与每个循环所产生的塑性应变能密度均呈幂函数关系;应力三轴度会影响疲劳裂纹扩展速率,并最终影响焊点的疲劳寿命;应力三轴度与加载方式有关,拉伸载荷下焊点的应力应变行为受异种材料界面和封装结构力学约束作用的影响,应力三轴度随焊点高度降低而明显升高;而剪切载荷作用下焊点中的力学约束十分有限,焊点高度变化对应力三轴度的影响非常小;测得的高度为100 μm焊点的疲劳裂纹扩展相关常数可以很好地用于预测其他不同高度焊点的疲劳寿命,表明所提出的预测模型可以有效地减小由几何结构和体积变化造成的塑性应变能集中现象对焊点疲劳寿命的影响。