Experimental study of the influences of degraded vacuum on multilayer insulation blankets

The paper presented experimental investigation on the heat transfer of MLI with different rarefied gases at different pressures. The investigations were carried out using an innovative static liquid nitrogen boil-off rate measurement system in the case of the small temperature perturbations of cold and warm boundaries. The heat fluxes for a number of inert and some polyatomic gases have been analyzed at different heat transfer conditions ranging from molecular to continuum regime, apparent thermal conductivities of the multilayer insulation were measured over a wide range of temperature (77 K–300 K) and pressure (10⁻³–10⁵ Pa) using the apparatus. The experimental results indicated that under degraded vacuum condition, the influences of rarefied gas on the MLI thermal performance very depend on the gas rarefaction degree which impacted by the MLI vacuum degree. Under the condition of molecular regime heat transfer, the MLI thermal performance was greatly influenced by gas energy accommodation coefficients (EAC), when under the continuum regime, the performances depend on the thermal conductivity of rarefied gas itself. Compared to the results of N₂, Ar, CO₂, Air and He as interstitial gases in the MLI, Ar was the better selection as space gas because of its low EAC and thermal conductivity characteristics on the different vacuum condition ranging from high pressure to vacuum. So different residual gases can be utilized according to the vacuum level and gas energy accommodation coefficient, in order to improve the insulation performance of low vacuum MLI.     

Wrapped multilayer insulation design and testing

New vehicles need improved cryogenic propellant storage and transfer capabilities for long duration missions. Multilayer insulation (MLI) for cryogenic propellant feedlines is much less effective than MLI tank insulation, with heat leak into spiral wrapped MLI on pipes 3–10 times higher than conventional tank MLI. Better insulation for cryogenic feed lines is an important enabling technology that could help NASA reach cryogenic propellant storage and transfer requirements. Improved insulation for Ground Support Equipment could reduce cryogen losses during launch vehicle loading. Wrapped-MLI (WMLI) is a high performance multilayer insulation using innovative discrete spacer technology specifically designed for cryogenic transfer lines and Vacuum Jacketed Pipe (VJP) to reduce heat flux.The poor performance of traditional MLI wrapped on feed lines is due in part to compression of the MLI layers, with increased interlayer contact and heat conduction. WMLI uses discrete spacers that maintain precise layer spacing, with a unique design to reduce heat leak. A Triple Orthogonal Disk spacer was engineered to minimize contact area/length ratio and reduce solid heat conduction for use in concentric MLI configurations.A new insulation, WMLI, was developed and tested. Novel polymer spacers were designed, analyzed and fabricated; different installation techniques were examined; and rapid prototype nested shell components to speed installation on real world piping were designed and tested. Prototypes were installed on tubing set test fixtures and heat flux measured via calorimetry. WMLI offered superior performance to traditional MLI installed on cryogenic pipe, with 2.2 W/m² heat flux compared to 26.6 W/m² for traditional spiral wrapped MLI (5 layers, 77–295 K). WMLI as inner insulation in VJP can offer heat leaks as low as 0.09 W/m, compared to industry standard products with 0.31 W/m. WMLI could enable improved spacecraft cryogenic feedlines and industrial hot/cold transfer lines.     

The operation of the ISR facility in relation to the UHV environment

At CERN Geneva, two kilometers of UHV at 10⁻¹⁰ torr is in daily use at the Intersecting Storage Ring (ISR) facility. An appreciable fraction of the stainless steel vacuum chamber, some 200 m in fact, is continuously at 10⁻¹¹ torr.     

Industrialisation of the insulation vacuum barrier for the large hadron collider (LHC) magnet cryostats

The insulation vacuum (<10⁻⁴ Pa) of the large hadron collider magnet cryostats, thermally protecting the superconducting magnets which operate at 1.9 K in superfluid helium, is divided in to 214 m long segments separated by means of insulation vacuum barriers.The insulation vacuum barrier is a leak-tight stainless steel welded structure, composed of two concentric corrugated cylinders and one internal bellows linked together by a 6 mm thick central plate. As the vacuum barrier mechanically links the cryostat vacuum vessel operating at ambient temperature and the 1.9 K superconducting magnets, it is designed to have minimum heat conductivity. Conduction heat in-leak is intercepted at 65 K by a high-purity copper ring brazed onto the stainless steel central plate and thermally linked to a cryogenic line by a copper-aluminium soldering. The thermal performance has been experimentally validated by cryogenic testing.This paper presents the results obtained after industrialisation, manufacture and testing of prototypes and series units. Qualification of leak-tight welds in thin-sheet stainless steel (thickness 0.15-1.3 mm) has been carried out. Ultrasonic testing is performed on all brazing and soldering. Helium leak testing is performed, using dedicated tooling, to ensure a leak-tightness to a rate better than 10⁻⁹ Pa m³ s⁻¹.     

LHC: The world's largest vacuum systems being operated at CERN

With the successful circulation of beams in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), its vacuum system becomes the world's largest vacuum system under operation. This system is composed of 54 km of ultra high vacuum (UHV) for the two circulating beams and about 50 km of insulation vacuum around the cryogenic magnets and the liquid helium transfer lines (QRL). The LHC complex is completed by 7 km of high vacuum transfer lines for the injection of beams from the SPS and their dumping.Over the 54 km of UHV beam vacuum, 48 km are at cryogenic temperature (1.9 K), the remaining 6 km are at ambient temperature and use extensively non-evaporable getter (NEG) coatings, a technology that was born and industrialised at CERN.The cryogenic insulation vacuum systems, less demanding technically, impress by their size and volume: 50 km and 15,000 m³. Once cooled at 1.9 K, the cryopumping allows pressure in the 10⁻⁴ Pa range to be attained.     

A viscosity gauge for pressure measurement in the range 10 to 10 torr

In this paper a direct reading molecular damping gauge for pressure measurement in vacuum system is described. By making an oscillating vane (of aluminium foil 9 × 5 cm) one element of a closed loop servo system the amplitude of swing is maintained constant independent of pressure, the power fed into the system just balancing the losses due to gas damping. The power input is monitored and taken as a measure of gas damping and hence pressure. Experiment shows there to be a linear relation between power input and pressure over the whole useful working range 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻³ torr. By taking account of such secondary factors as the influence of the finite size of the vacuum vessel on the damping forces good agreement between theory and experiment can be reported. The relative unimportance of accomodation coefficient on the behaviour of the gauge is discussed. The prediction that sensitivity is proportional to the square root of the molecular weight of the gas in the vacuum system has been checked and found correct to ± 4 percent over the range 4–350 amu. This gauge can therefore be recommended as a useful secondary calibration standard for vapours where more conventional calibrating techniques are difficult to apply.     

Heat flux from 277 to 77 K through a few layers of multilayer insulation

The insulating ability of a multilayer insulation (MLI) system, consisting of a few layers on an aluminium taped 77 K surface, was experimentally studied to understand quantitatively how thermal performance changes with the number of multilayers and vacuum level. This information can help to make design decisions trading-off the cost of material and installation manpower against liquid nitrogen consumption in many cryogenic applications. The ratios of the measured heat flux for different systems are: Q(_painted) : Q(_taped) : Q(_{5 layers}) : Q(_{10 layers}) : Q(_{20 layers}) Q(_{30 layers}) = 1 : 0.19 : 0.06 : 0.037 : 0.027 : 0.022. The effective thermal conductivity also increases with the number of layers so only a marginal benefit can be gained in excess of 30 layers; for large liquid vessels 30–40 layers are recommended. The heat flux and temperature distribution in the MLI were also measured as functions of vacuum pressure. The temperature of the last layer is closer to the temperature of the warm box than that of the first layer is to the cold surface, even if the last layer is separated from the warm box and the first layer is in contact with the cold surface. The results and heat transfer mechanisms through MLI are analysed and discussed.     

Vacuum insulation panels—From research to market

Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) have a thermal resistance about a factor of 10 higher than that of equally thick conventional polystyrene boards. Similar to thermos flasks these systems make use of ‘vacuum’ to suppress the heat transfer via gaseous conduction. While thermos flasks are to be pumped down to a high vacuum, filling material integrated in the flat VIP elements, which bears the atmospheric pressure load, reduces the requirements on the vacuum and thus on the tightness of the vacuum casing. Optimal in this respect is a kernel of fumed silica. This kernel is evacuated to below 1 mbar and sealed in a high-barrier laminate, which consists of several layers of Al-coated polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The laminate is optimized for low air and moisture leakage rates and thus for a long service life. The evacuated silica kernel has a thermal conductivity of about 0.004 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ at room temperature, mainly resulting from solid thermal conduction along the tenuous silica backbone. As the kernel is nanoporous, the gaseous thermal conductivity becomes noticeable only for pressures above 10 mbar. At about 200 mbar the thermal conductivity measures about 0.008 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹. Such a gas pressure could occur after several decades of usage in a middle European climate. With VIP, slim yet highly insulating façade constructions can be realized. A centre U-value of 0.2 W m⁻² K⁻¹ can be achieved for a VIP thickness of only 2 cm, if optimized kernels and barrier laminates as well as stringent quality control are employed. A successful “self-trial” using VIPs within a façade of the ZAE-building in Würzburg in 1999 was the starting point for new applications of evacuated insulations in the building sector.     

The influence of O2 and N2 on the hall and field effect mobilities in CdSe and PbTe thin films

Thin films of CdSe and PbTe were evaporated onto SiO in a vacuum system in which a pressure of less than 5 × 10⁻¹⁰ torr was available. The Hall and field effect measurements were made directly after producing the sample. Furthermore, these measurements were repeated under various partial pressures of O₂ and N₂ up to nearly 10⁺² torr. A remarkable influence of these gases on the mobilities was observed. One can understand this effect by considering that p-type regions are formed at the surface of the n-type semiconductors and thus a diminution of the measured mobilities occurs.     

Novel load responsive multilayer insulation with high in-atmosphere and on-orbit thermal performance

Aerospace cryogenic systems require lightweight, high performance thermal insulation to preserve cryopropellants both pre-launch and on-orbit. Current technologies have difficulty meeting all requirements, and advances in insulation would benefit cryogenic upper stage launch vehicles, LH₂ fueled aircraft and ground vehicles, and provide capabilities for sub-cooled cryogens for space-borne instruments and orbital fuel depots. This paper reports the further development of load responsive multilayer insulation (LRMLI) that has a lightweight integrated vacuum shell and provides high thermal performance both in-air and on-orbit.LRMLI is being developed by Quest Product Development and Ball Aerospace under NASA contract, with prototypes designed, built, installed and successfully tested. A 3-layer LRMLI blanket (0.63 cm thick, 77 K cold, 295 K hot) had a measured heat leak of 6.6 W/m² in vacuum and 40.6 W/m² in air at one atmosphere. In-air LRMLI has an 18× advantage over Spray On Foam Insulation (SOFI) in heat leak per thickness and a 16× advantage over aerogel. On-orbit LRMLI has a 78× lower heat leak than SOFI per thickness and 6× lower heat leak than aerogel.The Phase II development of LRMLI is reported with a modular, flexible, thin vacuum shell and improved on-orbit performance. Structural and thermal analysis and testing results are presented. LRMLI mass and thermal performance is compared to SOFI, aerogel and MLI over SOFI.     

Method for measuring a vacuum in an environment at liquid helium temperatures

The experimental results of a new method to measure a vacuum in an environment at liquid helium temperatures are presented. The method uses a thin superconducting wire suspended in the vacuum vessel, the wire is heated by a current pulse > l_c. The cool down time, which depends on the heat transfer into the rest gas and on the axial heat conductance of the wire, is a measure of the vacuum and it is detected by the recovery of the wire to superconductivity. The results exhibit good resolution in the range of pressures from 5 × 10^?3 to 5 Pa (5 × 10^?5 to 5 × 10^?2 mbar).     

A dilution refrigerator with large cooling power

A dilution refrigerator with sintered copper heat exchangers and a He³ circulation rate of 1.4 × 10⁻⁴ − 3 × 10⁻⁴ mole s⁻¹ is described. The cooling power at 15 mK is 1μW. Construction of the cryostat and the pumping system is discussed in detail. Heat transfer in the exchangers and in the mixing chamber is discussed and measurements of thermal contact between the mixing chamber and an outside load are presented.     

Investigations into the thermal performance of multilayer insulation (300-77 K) Part 2: Thermal analysis

Simple analytical methods have been employed for heat transfer analysis of experimental data obtained through calorimetric investigations on multilayer insulation (MLI). Sectional heat transfer analysis has shown that the effective thermal conductivity of the MLI varies from section to section of the insulation structure and it has a peak which lies between the middle and warm boundary regions of the MLI. This could be attributed to a peak in residual gas conduction in this region. The theoretical estimation of heat flux through MLI, using a simple analytical model, is also discussed in this paper. This model takes into consideration the non-linear temperature profile of the insulation. The computed heat flux using this model gives a lower (2 to 4 times) value in comparison with the heat flux estimated from calorimetric measurements. A refined model has been suggested which includes the residual gas conduction also in MLI.     

Thermal vacuum integrated system test at B-2

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Glenn Research Center (GRC) Plum Brook Station (PBS) Space Propulsion Research Facility, commonly referred to as B-2, is NASA’s third largest thermal vacuum facility. It is the largest designed to store and transfer large quantities of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, and is perfectly suited to support developmental testing of chemical propulsion systems as well as fully integrated stages. The facility is also capable of providing thermal-vacuum simulation services to support testing of large lightweight structures, Cryogenic Fluid Management (CFM) systems, electric propulsion test programs, and other In-Space propulsion programs.A recently completed integrated system test demonstrated the refurbished thermal vacuum capabilities of the facility. The test used the modernized data acquisition and control system to monitor the facility during pump down of the vacuum chamber, operation of the liquid nitrogen heat sink (or cold wall) and the infrared lamp array. A vacuum level of 1.3 × 10^?4 Pa (1 × 10^?6 torr) was achieved. The heat sink provided a uniform temperature environment of approximately 77 K (139°R) along the entire inner surface of the vacuum chamber. The recently rebuilt and modernized infrared lamp array produced a nominal heat flux of 1.4 kW/m² at a chamber diameter of 6.7 m (22 ft) and along 11 m (36 ft) of the chamber’s cylindrical vertical interior. With the lamp array and heat sink operating simultaneously, the thermal systems produced a heat flux pattern simulating radiation to space on one surface and solar exposure on the other surface. The data acquired matched pretest predictions and demonstrated system functionality.     

Intercomparison of gas flow-rate measurements at IMGC, Italy, and UASG, Germany, in the range from 10 to 10 Pa m/s

Primary standard gas flow meters are developed for various applications such as calibration of leak artefacts, generation of calibration pressures by dynamic gas expansion and calibration of secondary standard gas flow meters. The Istituto di Metrologia “G. Colonnetti” (IMGC), Italy, and the University of Applied Sciences Giessen-Friedberg (UASG), Germany, maintain primary flow meters based on different principles in order to measure small gas flows delivered either to vacuum (i.e. practically zero pressure) or to atmosphere (ambient pressure). The principle, design and properties of these flow meters are described. Comparison of the primary standard flow meters maintained at these laboratories was performed over a range from 3×10⁻⁸ to 7×10⁻⁴ Pa m³/s with nitrogen, using a crimped capillary leak as a transfer standard. IMGC was the pilot laboratory. During the intercomparison, the transfer standard changed by ca. −2% for flow to vacuum and by ca. −4% for flow to atmosphere without obvious reason. The results of the intercomparison show that the laboratories agree within their expanded uncertainties over the measured range of gas flows.     

Effect of ambient pretreatment of graphite and solvent-catalyst on diamond formation

Diamond was formed from purified natural graphite under high pressure and temperature conditions (7 G Pa, 1700° C) using a solvent-catalyst in the unary (Fe) or binary (Fe-Ti) system. The effect of an ambient pretreatment of the starting mixed powder (graphite and solvent-catalyst) was investigated in relation to the formation and grain growth of diamond. An initial desorption of adsorbed water vapour or harmful gases from the starting powder in vacuum (2 × 10^–5 torr) at higher temperatures (>400° C) was required in order to increase the conversion ratio from graphite to diamond. The subsequent ambient pretreatment at 1000° C in different atmospheres was found to affect the grain growth process of diamond. The depression of grain growth was confirmed in both cases of pretreatments in vacuum (2 × 10^–5 torr) and in an argon atmosphere (1 × 10^–3 or 760 torr). The diamond grains were discrete in the vacuum pretreatment, while a particle joining between the diamond grains was promoted in the argon pretreatment. The pretreatment in an N₂ atmosphere (1 × 10^–3 or 760 torr) tended to accelerate the grain growth of diamond.     

Study on the distillation rates of LiCl-KCl eutectic salt under different vacuum conditions

A study on the distillation rate of LiCl-KCl eutectic salt under different vacuums from 0.5 to 50 Torr was performed by using thermogravimetric (TG) method. A distillation rate of the order of 10⁻⁴-10⁻⁵ mol cm⁻² s⁻¹ was obtainable at temperatures of 1200-1300 K and vacuums of 5-50 Torr. Based on the non-isothermal TG data, model distillation flux equations could be derived as a function of temperature. Pure gas-phase and gas-liquid interfacial resistances at different vacuum conditions were evaluated from the comparison of experimental vaporization fluxes with the maximum flux obtained from the kinetic theory of gas. The difference between interfacial mass transfer coefficients and gas-phase ones increases with the temperature. Gas-phase resistance is much greater than that of the phase transition between condensed and gas phases at tested vacuum conditions of 0.5-50 Torr.     

Versatile sample holder for a study of high vapour pressure liquids by the X-ray fluorescence method

An inexpensive sample holder for liquids has been constructed for X-ray fluorescence studies. The holder can be maintained at any selected temperature up to 200°C above ambient. It can be operated in a vacuum down to 10^?3 torr.     

INRIM continuous expansion system as high vacuum primary standard for gas pressure measurements below 9 × 10 Pa

The continuous expansion system can be considered the state of the art for pressure measurement in the ultra high vacuum range. In the last years, at INRIM, a new continuous expansion system was designed, assembled and characterized. The system is the high vacuum primary standard in the pressure range from 1 × 10⁻⁶ Pa to 9 × 10⁻² Pa with relative standard uncertainty ranging from 2.1% at 1 × 10⁻⁶ Pa down to 0.4% at 9 × 10⁻² Pa. The system is based on the passing of a measured gas flow through a fixed and known conductance. The gas flow is generated and measured by a primary gas flowmeter based on the constant-pressure-variable-volume method.In the first part of the paper both a correction for the effect of transitional flow through the orifice and a new analytical evaluation of orifice conductance are presented. In the second part the accuracy of the system and the pressure uncertainty evaluation are described.