Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis.

Two analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in global self-esteem. In Analysis I, a computerized literature search yielded 216 effect sizes, representing the testing of 97,121 respondents. The overall effect size was 0.21, a small difference favoring males. A significant quadratic effect of age indicated that the largest effect emerged in late adolescence (d?=?0.33). In Analysis II, gender differences were examined using 3 large, nationally representative data sets from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). All of the NCES effect sizes, which collectively summarize the responses of approximately 48,000 young Americans, indicated higher male self-esteem (ds ranged from 0.04 to 0.24). Taken together, the 2 analyses provide evidence that males score higher on standard measures of global self-esteem than females, but the difference is small. Potential reasons for the small yet consistent effect size are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.

The authors used meta-analytical techniques to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mean level and variability of 35 dimensions and 3 factors of temperament in children ages 3 months to 13 years. Effortful control showed a large difference favoring girls and the dimensions within that factor (e.g., inhibitory control: d = -.41, perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38) showed moderate gender differences favoring girls, consistent with boys' greater incidence of externalizing disorders. Surgency showed a difference favoring boys, as did some of the dimensions within that factor (e.g., activity: d = 0.33, high-intensity pleasure: d = 0.30), consistent with boys' greater involvement in active rough-and-tumble play. Negative affectivity showed negligible gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis.

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.

Performed a meta-analysis of 100 studies (published 1963–1988) of gender differences in mathematics performance. They yielded 254 independent effect sizes, representing the testing of 3,175,188 Ss. Averaged overall effect sizes based on samples of the general population indicated that females outperformed males by only a negligible amount. An examination of age trends indicated that girls showed a slight superiority in computation in elementary school and middle school. There were no gender differences in problem solving in elementary or middle school; differences favoring men emerged in high school and college. Gender differences were smallest and actually favored females in samples of the general population, grew larger with increasingly selective samples, and were largest for highly selected samples and samples of highly precocious persons. The magnitude of the gender difference has declined over the years. Gender differences in mathematics performance are small. Nonetheless, the lower performance of women in problem solving that is evident in high school requires attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in domain-specific self-esteem: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis examines gender differences in 10 specific domains of self-esteem across 115 studies, including 428 effect sizes and 32,486 individuals. In a mixed-effects analysis, men scored significantly higher than women on physical appearance (d = 0.35), athletic (d = 0.41), personal self (d = 0.28), and self-satisfaction self-esteem (d = 0.33). Women scored higher than men on behavioral conduct (d = ?0.17) and moral–ethical self-esteem (d = ?0.38). The gender difference in physical appearance self-esteem was significant only after 1980 and was largest among adults. No significant gender differences appeared in academic, social acceptance, family, and affect self-esteem. The results demonstrate the influence of reflected appraisals on self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis.

C. Gilligan's (see record 1993-98550-000) critique of L. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and her assertion that two modes of moral reasoning (justice and care) exist have been the subject of debate within the field of psychology for more than 15 years. This meta-analysis was conducted to review quantitatively the work on gender differences in moral orientation. The meta-analysis revealed small differences in the care orientation favoring females (d?=?–.28) and small differences in the justice orientation favoring males (d?=?.19). Together, the moderator variables accounted for 16% of the variance in the effect sizes for care reasoning and 17% of the variance in the effect sizes for justice reasoning. These findings do not offer strong support for the claim that the care orientation is used predominantly by women and that the justice orientation is used predominantly by men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis.

Located 165 studies that reported data on gender differences in verbal ability. The weighted mean effect size was +0.11, indicating a slight female superiority in performance. The difference is so small that we argue that gender differences in verbal ability no longer exist. Analysis of tests requiring different cognitive processes involved in verbal ability yielded no evidence of substantial gender differences in any aspect of processing. Similarly, an analysis of age indicated no striking changes in the magnitude of gender differences at different ages, countering Maccoby and Jacklin's (1974) conclusion that gender differences in verbal ability emerge around age 11 yrs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in personality: a meta-analysis

Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.     

Gender differences across age in motor performance: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 64 studies that reported gender differences on motor performance during childhood and adolescence. Findings yielded 702 effect sizes based on data from 15,518 female and 15,926 male 3–20 yr olds. Age was regressed on effect size, and the relation was significant for 12 of 20 tasks (e.g., balance, catching, grip strength, shuttle run, throw velocity, tapping). Several types of age-related curves were found; the curve for a throwing task was the most distinctive. Five of the tasks followed a typical curve of gender differences across age. For 8 tasks, gender differences were not related to age, and effect sizes were small. Results are discussed in relation to the development of gender differences to biological and environmental sources. A bibliography of the 64 studies is appended. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of studies of gender differences in aggression, based on the sample of studies in the E. E. Maccoby and C. N. Jacklin (1974) review and a recent sample of studies from 1978 to 1981, for a total of 143 studies. Meta-analysis techniques were also extended to applications of interest to developmental psychologists. The median value of ω–2 for gender differences in aggression was .05, and the median value of d was .50, indicating that, although the differences appear fairly reliably, they are not large. There was a trend for gender differences to be smaller in recent studies. Gender differences tended to be larger in naturalistic, correlational studies than in experimental studies. Gender differences also tended to be larger when the method of measurement was direct observation, a projective test, or peer report, and smaller when self-reports or parent or teacher reports were used. Finally, there was a modest negative association between magnitude of gender differences and age. For studies in which mean Ss' age was 6 yrs or less, the median ω–2 was .07 and d was .58; in contrast, for studies of college students the median ω–2 was .01 and d was .27. Overall results indicate that approximately 5% of the variance in aggression is due to gender differences. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in ADHD: a meta-analysis and critical review

OBJECTIVE: To quantitatively review and critically evaluate literature examining gender differences in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHOD: A meta-analysis of relevant research based on 18 studies meeting inclusion criteria was performed. Domains evaluated included primary symptomatology, intellectual and academic functioning, comorbid behavior problems, social behavior, and family variables. RESULTS: Gender differences were not found in impulsivity, academic performance, social functioning fine motor skills, parental education, or parental depression. However, compared with ADHD boys, ADHD girls displayed greater intellectual impairment, lower levels of hyperactivity, and lower rates of other externalizing behaviors; it was not possible to evaluate the extent to which referral bias affected these findings. Some gender differences were clearly mediated by the effects of referral source; among children with ADHD identified from nonreferred populations, girls with ADHD displayed lower levels of inattention, internalizing behavior, and peer aggression than boys with ADHD, while girls and boys with ADHD identified from clinic-referred samples displayed similar levels of impairment on these variables. CONCLUSIONS: The need for future research examining gender differences in ADHD is strongly indicated, with attention to methodological limitations of the current literature, including the potential confounding effects of referral bias, comorbidity, developmental patterns, diagnostic procedures, and rater source.     

Predicting workplace aggression: A meta-analysis.

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 57 empirical studies (59 samples) concerning enacted workplace aggression to answer 3 research questions. First, what are the individual and situational predictors of interpersonal and organizational aggression? Second, within interpersonal aggression, are there different predictors of supervisor- and coworker-targeted aggression? Third, what are the relative contributions of individual (i.e., trait anger, negative affectivity, and biological sex) and situational (i.e., injustice, job dissatisfaction, interpersonal conflict, situational constraints, and poor leadership) factors in explaining interpersonal and organizational aggression? Results show that both individual and situational factors predict aggression and that the pattern of predictors is target specific. Implications for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in self-concept among children and adolescents: A meta-analysis of multidimensional studies.

This investigation consolidated the recent research on gender differences in self-concept among children and youth by conducting a systematic meta-analysis of research published since 1980, particularly involving self-concept as a multidimensional phenomenon. Through a comprehensive search process, 22 studies representing over 19,000 child and adolescent participants were analyzed. The articles included participant samples from 7 nations: the US, Australia, Northern Ireland, South Africa, Finland, Norway, and Canada. Participants ranged from 1st grade through 12th grade. Mean effect size estimates across dimensions showed a complex pattern of gender differences and similarities, some of which were consistent across grade levels and others of which were not. Although some of the findings defied stereotypes, several were consistent with previous notions regarding differences in self-concept based on gender. The direction and complexity of these results emphasizes the importance of discussing developmental differences in self-concept in a thoughtful and careful manner and argues against the use of simplistic global generalizations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 205 studies involving 23,702 Ss to determine whether there are sex differences in self-disclosure. Across these studies, women disclosed slightly more than men (d?=?18). This effect size was not homogeneous across studies. Several moderator variables were found. Sex of target and the interaction effect of relationship to target and measure of self-disclosure moderated the effect of sex on self-disclosure. Sex differences in self-disclosure were significantly greater to female and same-sex partners than to opposite-sex or male partners. When the target had a relationship with the discloser (i.e., friend, parent, or spouse), women disclosed more than men regardless of whether self-disclosure was measured by self-report or observation. When the target was a stranger, men reported that they disclosed similarly to women; however, studies using observational measures of self-disclosure found that women disclosed more than men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis.

Men are overrepresented in socially problematic behaviors, such as aggression and criminal behavior, which have been linked to impulsivity. Our review of impulsivity is organized around the tripartite theoretical distinction between reward hypersensitivity, punishment hyposensitivity, and inadequate effortful control. Drawing on evolutionary, criminological, developmental, and personality theories, we predicted that sex differences would be most pronounced in risky activities with men demonstrating greater sensation seeking, greater reward sensitivity, and lower punishment sensitivity. We predicted a small female advantage in effortful control. We analyzed 741 effect sizes from 277 studies, including psychometric and behavioral measures. Women were consistently more punishment sensitive (d = ?0.33), but men did not show greater reward sensitivity (d = 0.01). Men showed significantly higher sensation seeking on questionnaire measures (d = 0.41) and on a behavioral risk-taking task (d = 0.36). Questionnaire measures of deficits in effortful control showed a very modest effect size in the male direction (d = 0.08). Sex differences were not found on delay discounting or executive function tasks. The results indicate a stronger sex difference in motivational rather than effortful or executive forms of behavior control. Specifically, they support evolutionary and biological theories of risk taking predicated on sex differences in punishment sensitivity. A clearer understanding of sex differences in impulsivity depends upon recognizing important distinctions between sensation seeking and impulsivity, between executive and effortful forms of control, and between impulsivity as a deficit and as a trait. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.

Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in physical aggression: A prospective population-based survey of children before and after 2 years of age.

There has been much controversy over the past decades on the origins of gender differences in children's aggressive behavior. A widely held view is that gender differences emerge sometime after 2 years of age and increase in magnitude thereafter because of gender-differentiated socialization practices. The objective of this study was to test for (a) gender differences in the prevalence of physical aggression in the general population of 17-month-old children and (b) change in the magnitude of these differences between 17 and 29 months of age. Contrary to the differential socialization hypothesis, the results showed substantial gender differences in the prevalence of physical aggression at 17 months of age, with 5% of boys but only 1% of girls manifesting physically aggressive behaviors on a frequent basis. The results suggest that there is no change in the magnitude of these differences between 17 and 29 months of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in problem-solving performance as a function of attitude differences.

Men make significantly higher scores than women on a scale of attitudes toward problem solving. Attitude scores "have some positive relationship to performance scores." From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:1GD56C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related differences in employee absenteeism: A meta-analysis.

Meta-analyses were performed on 34 samples that included correlations of the age and employee absenteeism relationship. Samples were categorized into 2 groups for voluntary absenteeism and involuntary absenteeism based on the frequency index and the time-lost index, respectively. Results indicated that both voluntary and involuntary absence are inversely related to age. Unexplained variance remained for each of the absence measures after variance due to sampling error and measurement unreliability was statistically estimated. Work demand was negatively associated with age, but not in the expected direction. Work demand did not moderate the age–absence relationship for either voluntary or involuntary absence. Sex moderated the relationship between age and voluntary absenteeism only. For men, the relationships were negative; for women, they did not differ significantly from 0. Implications for research and human resource management practices regarding aging and absenteeism are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)