Jahoda on Civil Liberties.

This is not a scientific paper. But then, neither was the article to which these comments apply (Amer. Psychologist, 1956, 11, 234-240). Jahoda's paper represents an attempt to justify her particular political beliefs and convictions by use of hypotheses and indeed the use of some references. Although every paragraph of the article is biased by hypotheses and loose constructs, space does not permit taking these up one at a time; this comment examines two of the cornerstones of the article. Recently articles like Jahoda's and the highly emotionalized concern of some psychologists over conformity, civil liberties, and academic freedom has made psychologists, as a professional group, appear to be anti-anticommunists. This as an unfortunate and unscientific situation. If social psychologists have any unresolved and unchanneled tensions, it might be suggested that they concern themselves with real civil liberties dilemmas, rather than garbing the black cat of "academic freedom" with an intellectualized mink coat and chasing it wildly through a coal bin at midnight. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

At random: Sense and nonsense.

"It is often said that psychologists are captivated by the magic of words." One example of this is the epidemic use by psychologists of the word 'design.' " "Despite glib talk about using factor analysis to test hypotheses, practically no users of factor analysis ever test hypotheses." A psychologist may "trudge off weighted down with a box full of statistical tools in search of a research problem that permits him to display skill with his tools." Most psychologists "without intentional eavesdropping know that occasionally their theory oriented colleagues simply discard all data of an experiment as bad data if not in agreement with the theory, and start over. The theory is, of course, always good." The theorist who has the one and only approach and solution to all, or nearly all, psychological problems "tends to lure those among us who have a low tolerance for the ambiguity that flourishes in psychology." This "model business is nothing more than a new name for old hat stuff… . The question of the usefulness of mathematical models and, to a certain extent, the value of high powered statistical techniques is debatable." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

That "vision thing": The state of theory in social and personality psychology at the edge of the new millennium.

Social psychology's status as a theoretical discipline is assessed. Whereas it has excelled as an experimental science, the field has generally eschewed broad theorizing and tended to limit its conceptualizations to relatively narrow, "mid-range" notions closely linked to the operational level of analysis. Such "theory shyness" may have spawned several negative consequences, including the tendency to invent new names for old concepts, fragmentation of the field, and isolation from the general cultural dialogue. Recently, steps have been taken to encourage greater theoretical activity by social psychologists, and there are now several major outlets for theoretical contributions. Further initiatives are needed, however, to instigate theoretical creativity, including ways of overcoming disciplinary risk aversion and the training of young social psychologists in ways and means of theory construction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Sex, evolution and behavior (2nd edition).

Reviews the book, Sex, evolution and behavior (2nd edition) by Martin Daly and Margo Wilson (1983). As Daly's and Wilson's text makes clear, the general framework of sociobiology has ordered an immense amount of disparate data on the nature of sexuality and offered important insights into the human condition. The book is written in an engaging and ebullient manner, aimed primarily as a textbook for undergraduate students in psychology and the social sciences. It is much more than this, however. It stands as a highly accessible guide and reference manual to current research and theory for psychologists interested in interfacing with evolutionary biology, as well as being "a good read" for any reasonably intelligent, literate person. It is very unusual for a book to so usefully serve such a wide audience. The authors have a quite remarkable capacity to "bottom line" knotty theories and complicated data sets. There are very few criticisms that can be made and most of these will be idiosyncratic to the particular reviewer. However, I suspect that three may occur to those psychologists considering offering courses on human sociobiology. First, the book is highly focused on sex and reproduction and, therefore, does not cover other important topics in the degree of detail that course instructors may have wished: altruism and aggression, to mention two. Second, an even greater emphasis on the human species would have been preferred by most behavioural scientists (particularly students). Finally, and allied to the last two criticisms, more information could have been incorporated from social-personality-developmental psychology. Instead, a mildly deprecating tone is occasionally adopted. Despite such minor carpings (and it is always easy to criticize a book for what it didn't include), the book is highly recommended for anyone interested in the current status of research in sociobiology. It would make an excellent textbook for anyone teaching a half year introductory course on sociobiology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative psychology: The next 100 volumes.

Comparative psychologists study the "mind" of animals by studying what animals do and what animals are capable of doing. Different investigators address questions of proximal cause, motivation, physiological mechanism, evolutionary and ontogenetic considerations, as well as functional consequences. Some use animal subjects to explore universal theories of behavior; others focus on the diversity of behavior itself. A number of theoretical positions guide the different approaches. Some theories have been proven woefully inadequate, even fatally flawed, but no discipline thrives solely on the validity of a single theory. Let us preserve the data and discard discredited hypotheses, but let us continue to advance our discipline and refrain from wallowing in remorse over erroneous earlier ideas. Ideas are exciting but data endure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The response of schizophrenic patients to a televised World Series game: A study in social isolation.

This study is an initial effort to demonstrate the social isolation of schizophrenic patients and to test certain hypotheses relating social isolation to chronicity and severity of illness. Using a standardized rating sheet, 8 clinical psychologists were stationed on wards of a large mental hospital to observe the responses of patients during a televised World Series baseball game. The results showed that on the whole the game drew an unusually small audience. There was a striking absence of social response in terms of interaction between patients or with the game. This study, thus, highlights the schizophrenic's immense alienation from social interchange. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What neuroimaging and brain localization can do, cannot do and should not do for social psychology.

Interest in bridging social psychology and neuroscience has seen a significant upsurge. Much of this interest has centered on brain localization--the attempt to relate psychological events to locations of brain events. Although many articles have sought to localize brain activity that supports social behavior, scant attention has been paid to the specific methods to be used in integrating brain localization data into psychological theory. The authors describe 4 strategies psychologists can use to integrate brain localization data and psychological theory, and they consider whether social psychology presents special considerations in the use of these strategies. They conclude that brain localization offers a useful tool for some but not all problems in social psychology, and they discuss the types of problems for which it may and may not prove useful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological interventions in organizations: An evolutionary perspective.

Throughout the 20th century, managers and policy makers have relied on psychological interventions to help solve organizational problems. Yet, the results of these interventions rarely meet expectations. One reason may be that some of the perspectives used in thinking about interventions are at odds with how interventions and organizations function. This article argues that applied psychologists may benefit from an evolutionary perspective. Although it holds an important place in basic psychology and organization theory, an evolutionary perspective is nearly absent in applied psychology. It views the development and use of social technologies as part of sociocultural evolution—driven by variation, selection, and retention. This article provides a framework for theory and research on an evolutionary perspective in applied psychology and suggests implications for practice. Key concepts in the design of interventions include uncertainty, variation, and conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychologist as change agent.

Given the press of contemporary social problems, psychologists are confronted with opportunities to become agents for social change. The academic, research-oriented training of psychologists does not equip him with the relevant values, knowledge, or skills to become an effective change agent and predisposes: him to reject the role as unscientific or unprofessional. This is true for the clinical, educational, and industrial psychologist as well as for the experimental and comparative psychologist. Professionals are being trained in management schools and departments of applied behavioral science who possess the requisite values, interdisciplinary knowledge, and consultative skills to be effective change agents in large organizations. Their general strategy is to transmit their knowledge and skills to non-professionals in the organization who share their values. Psychologists have typically viewed this activity by non-psychologists as a threat and their response has been characterized more by a defence of the discipline than by a concern for solving problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The inheritance of mental ability.

Arguments "from introspection, from biology, and from neurology" concerning the problem of individual differences in mental ability are cited. The specific independent abilities theory of Thorndike, the single general factor theory of Spearman, and the 2 factors of general and specific abilities are discussed. "In controversies about the facts of mental heredity most critics have tended to assume that the two causal agencies commonly discussed—heredity and environment—are not merely antithetical but mutually exclusive… . In point of fact, with a few rare exceptions, like eye color or serological differences in the blood, every observable characteristic that geneticists have studied has proved to be the product of the joint action of both heredity and environment. There are, in short, no such things as hereditary characters; there are only hereditary tendencies." It is to be regreted that so little progress has been made by psychologists in applying modern genetic methods to fundamental study in the nature-nurture area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology: unified perspective on personality research

Behavioral geneticists and evolutionary psychologists have generally pursued human behavioral analyses with little theoretical or methodological exchange. However, significant benefits might accrue from increased communication between these disciplines. The primary goals of this article are (1) to identify meaningful junctures between behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology, (2) to describe behavioral genetic research designs and their applications to evolutionary analyses, and (3) to reassess current personality research in light of behavioral genetic and evolutionary concepts and techniques. The five-factor model of personality is conceptualized as subsuming variation in normative species-typical systems with adaptive functions in the human environment of evolutionary adaptation. Considered as universal evolved mechanisms, personality systems are often seen in dynamic conflict within individuals and as highly compartmentalized in their functioning between settings. However, genetically influenced individual differences in personality may also be understood within an evolutionary framework. Studies of the heritability of personality traits indicate broad-sense heritabilities in the 0.40-0.50 range with evidence of substantial nonadditive genetic variation and nonshared environmental influences. Evidence indicates that evolutionary theory (e.g., inclusive fitness theory) predicts patterns of social interaction (e.g., cooperation and bereavement) in relatives. Furthermore, variation in personality may constitute a range of viable strategies matching the opportunities available in the complex niche environment of human societies. Within this wide range of viable strategies, personality variation functions as a resource environment for individuals in the sense that personality variation is evaluated according to the interests of the evaluator (e.g., friendships, coalitions, or mate choice).     

Some perspectives for industrial psychology.

Discusses several matters deemed important to industrial psychologists. It is suggested that, given the intangible character of psychological variables, it would be fruitful to obtain the ideas of ordinary people about the variables that are significant in occupational behavior. Industrial psychologists ought to study organizations as "individuals" rather than just regarding them as social environments. The use of simulated organizations (e.g., mathematical models) would facilitate such investigations. Industrial psychologists should consider the differences among people to be quantitative rather than qualitative. Consequently, they should not devote their time to investigating differences among arbitrary types of people, but rather should direct their attention to the quantitative variables (e.g., social factors) which underlie those qualitatively different categories. The role and nature of theory and the impermanence of facts which emerge from empirical studies are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Progress in the study of brain evolution: from speculative theories to testable hypotheses

Darwin's theory of evolution raised the question of how the human brain differs from that of other animals and how it is the same. Early students of brain evolution had constructed rather grand but speculative theories which stated that brains evolved in a linear manner, from fish to man and from simple to complex. These speculations were soundly refuted, however, as contemporary comparative neurobiologists used powerful new techniques and methodologies to discover that complex brains have evolved several times independently among vertebrates (e.g., within teleost fishes and birds) and that brain complexity has actually decreased in the lineages leading to modern salamanders and lungfishes. Moreover, the old idea that brains evolved by the sequential addition of new components has now been replaced by the working hypothesis that brains generally evolve by the divergent modification of preexisting parts. Speculative theories have thus been replaced by testable hypotheses, and current efforts in the field are aimed at making phylogenetic hypotheses even more testable. Particularly promising new directions for comparative neurobiology include (1) the integration of comparative neuroanatomy with comparative embryology and developmental genetics in order to test phylogenetic hypotheses at a mechanistic level, (2) research into how evolutionary changes in the structure of neural circuits are related to evolutionary changes in circuit function and animal behavior, and (3) the analysis of independently evolved similarities to discover general rules about how brains may or may not change during the course of evolution.     

Contributions of Canadian community psychology.

The contributions of Canadian community psychologists to ethics, theory, methodology, research, and practise are highlighted in this article. Important debates about ethical issues in psychological research and practise have been advanced by Canadian community psychologists. Canadian community psychologists have also introduced theoretical perspectives (e.g., cognitive community psychology) that have provided an impetus for research and practise, and they have broadened the focus of research in community settings with contributions to participatory action research, program evaluation, and qualitative methods. A variety of substantive contributions have been made to the research literature, especially in the areas of community mental health, prevention, and social inclusion. Finally, Canadian community psychologists have contributed to practise in terms of policy, programs, and social interventions. The article concludes with a discussion of future potential areas of contribution for Canadian community psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociobiology: An environmentalist discipline?

Many psychologists associate sociobiology with the view that certain behaviors are inevitable in the ontogeny of each person and that an evolutionary perspective requires that human nature be predetermined. This view, we argue, follows from the work of the classic ethologists who studied "conserved, unchanged" behaviors to elucidate species differences and similarities. In this article, the concepts of genetically organized life histories and of environmentally contingent strategies for implementing them are integrated with the notion of Darwinian algorithms to provide an evolutionary model of how organisms deal with varying environmental conditions. We conclude that psychologists should concentrate their efforts on studying concurrently and developmentally contingent strategies and that optimal progress will be achieved if attention is concentrated on behaviors (a) with low heritability, (b) that are closely related to reproductive function, and (c) whose sensitivity to environmental conditions would have been adaptive in ancestral populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Notes on an evolutionary medicine

OBJECTIVE: Medicine does not have a comprehensive theory of health, ill-health, and disease. Its explanations of disease are firmly rooted in pathological anatomy brought about by infection, intoxication, trauma, and mutations in genes. Because medical concepts have been influenced mainly by classical physics, it is mechanistic, materialistic, deterministic, reductionistic, linear-causal, and strongly biased toward proximate explanations of disease. Of late, many thoughtful persons have attempted to provide medicine with a more comprehensive theory that integrates the documented roles of physical, social, environmental, and psychological factors in the etiology and pathogenesis of ill-health and disease (eg, Refs. 1-3). METHOD: Until very recently (4), no one has clearly pointed out that such a comprehensive theory should be guided by the concepts of evolutionary and organismic biology. Darwin's great theory states that evolution is "driven," but not exclusively so, by natural and sexual selection. Natural selection acts on variants that differ in adaptive capacities. Those capable of adaptation survive to reproduce. Failure to adapt reduces reproductive fitness and success, and leads to injury or death. But this formulation could be expanded to regard ill-health and disease as adaptive failures, whereas health usually may be conceived of as equivalent to adaptive success. Adaptations are determined by many factors-genetic, morphological, physiological, and behavioral. Selective pressures are many and varied. However, social primates are at a selective advantage, and are among the most successful species and varieties. Social behavior (eg, support) seems to enhance the chances of survival and reproductive fitness. Physiological (immunological, metabolic, cardiovascular) and behavioral adaptations are geared specifically for interactions with the environment. Emotions have evolved as ways of matching physiological responses with environmental demands and signaling the organism's state. RESULTS: This study will review aspects of evolutionary theory that would lead to a unified, integrated theory of health, illness, and disease, and to a clearer taxonomy in medicine.     

Theory and philosophy in social psychology.

Social psychologists are generally very empirical, and their research is usually theoretically oriented. However, what passes for theory is often no more than a couple of vague statements. Nevertheless, coming from the tradition of Kurt Lewin, we tend to reject papers that do not test a "theory". On the other hand, we pay no attention to theories lacking experimental support. Clinical observations are not enough. There is very little concern with philosophical issues. Ken Gergen of Swarthmore College is a notable exception and is often on convention programs. His comments about "historicism" in social psychology have caused some published rebuttals, but our members are largely not very concerned with this or with Gergen's more recent forays in "social re-constructionism". (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linguistic Isolation of American Psychology.

Comments on the original article "Linguistic isolation of American social psychology: A comparative study of journal citations," by L. J. Finison and C. L. Whittemore (see record 1990-57169-001). In this comment, the author makes two remarks relevant to the linguistic isolation of American psychology in general. First, the low citation rate to foreign language publications in American psychology journals, such as that found by Finison and Whittemore for social psychology journals, does not necessarily mean that almost every piece of research published in psychology is contributed by an American psychologist, or that American psychologists ignore the work of foreign researchers. Second, another factor that may explain partially, and at least in some areas of psychology, the high English-language citation rate in psychology journals is the translation of the work by foreign psychologists into the English language. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mentoring women graduate students: A model for professional psychology.

There is much discussion about the importance of mentoring women graduate students but not an equal amount of practical research-based guidance about how best to do this. This article summarizes a mentoring model that was developed using a pilot survey of 55 women graduate students throughout the United States, followed by grounded theory research by conducting qualitative interviews with 8 eminent women psychologists. It augments current research on mentoring to provide an integrated set of hypotheses about the theory and practice of mentoring; an operational definition of mentor and mentoring; overarching assumptions about mentoring; strategies for forming, structuring, managing, and maintaining mentoring relationships; and the roles and functions of the mentor, the mentee, and the relationship. It describes examples of mentoring practices specifically for use with women mentees and discusses how mentoring relationships may end or change as they mature. While the mentoring model was developed based on research with women, many of the tenants can be applied to both men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)