Motivated response styles: The role of cultural values, regulatory focus, and self-consciousness in socially desirable responding.

Three studies investigated the relations between cultural values and socially desirable responding, the processes that underlie them, and factors that influence the strength of the relations. Results indicated that individualism was associated with self-deceptive enhancement but not impression management, whereas collectivism was associated with impression management but not self-deceptive enhancement. Regulatory focus was found to mediate these relations. A promotion focus mediated the relation between individualism and self-deceptive enhancement, whereas a prevention focus mediated the relation between collectivism and impression management. This mediation pattern held regardless of whether individualism and collectivism were determined at the group level (Study 1) or measured at the individual level (Studies 2–3), whether socially desirable responding was operationalized as a scale measure (Studies 1–3) or as reactions to behavioral scenarios (Study 2), and across different measures of regulatory focus. This general mediation pattern was found to be moderated by type of self-consciousness (Study 3): The promotion focus mediation was stronger for participants low (vs. high) in private self-consciousness, and the prevention focus mediation was stronger for participants high (vs. low) in public self-consciousness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural accommodation: Hybridity and the framing of social obligation.

Implications of cultural accommodation–hybridization were explored within the framework of individualism–collectivism. Individualism highlights the personal and centralizes individuals as the unit of analyses, whereas collectivism highlights the social and contextualizes individuals as parts of connected social units. In 2 experiments, the ways in which individualism, collectivism, and identity salience influence social obligation to diverse others was explored. The authors varied the personal goal interrupted (achievement–pleasure), the target (individual–group), and focus (in-group–larger society) of social obligation within subjects. The authors hypothesized that collectivism would increase obligation to the in-group when identity was made salient; that individualism alone would dampen social obligation; and that cultural accommodation–hybridization (being high in both individualism and collectivism) would increase obligation to larger society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Will they stay or will they go? The role of job embeddedness in predicting turnover in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Although turnover is an issue of global concern, paradoxically there have been few studies of turnover across cultures. We investigated the cross-cultural generalizability of the job embeddedness model (Mitchell & Lee, 2001) by examining turnover in an individualistic country (United States) and a collectivistic country (India). Using cross-cultural data from call centers (N = 797), we demonstrated that although organization job embeddedness predicted turnover in both countries, different dimensions of job embeddedness predicted turnover in the United States and India. As hypothesized, on the basis of individualism–collectivism theory, person–job fit was a significant predictor of lower turnover in the United States, whereas person–organization fit, organization links, and community links were significant predictors of lower turnover in India. We also explored whether a newly developed construct of embeddedness—family embeddedness—predicts turnover above and beyond job embeddedness and found initial support for its utility in both the United States and India. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Links between race/ethnicity and cultural values as mediated by racial/ethnic identity and moderated by gender.

Two studies examined whether individualism (orientation toward one's own welfare), collectivism (orientation toward the welfare of one's larger community), and familism (orientation toward the welfare of one's immediate and extended family) are distinct cultural values predicted by race/ethnicity. The 3 constructs proved to be separate dimensions, although collectivism and familism were positively correlated. In Study 1, persons of color scored higher on collectivism and familism than did Anglos. No differences emerged for individualism. Also, persons of color scored higher than Anglos on racial/ethnic identity, which in turn was a positive predictor of all 3 cultural values. In Study 2, we replicated the group differences on collectivism and familism for men but not for women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of individualism and collectivism across the United States.

Although the individualism–collectivism dimension is usually examined in a U.S. versus Asian context, there is variation within the United States. The authors created an eight-item index ranking states in terms of collectivist versus individualist tendencies. As predicted, collectivist tendencies were strongest in the Deep South, and individualist tendencies were strongest in the Mountain West and Great Plains. In Part 2, convergent validity for the index was obtained by showing that state collectivism scores predicted variation in individual attitudes, as measured by a national survey. In Part 3, the index was used to explore the relationship between individualism–collectivism and a variety of demographic, economic, cultural, and health-related variables. The index may be used to complement traditional measures of collectivism and individualism and may be of use to scholars seeking a construct to account for unique U.S. regional variation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Variations in collectivism and individualism by ingroup and culture: Confirmatory factor analysis.

Five models of collectivism and individualism, which varied by ingroup and measurement specification, were tested with confirmatory factor analyses. The sample consisted of 493 college students from South Korea and the United States, with U.S. students divided between Asian Americans and European Americans. Results indicated that collectivism and individualism are best represented by a 4-factor model with the latent variables Kin Collectivism (KC), Kin Individualism (KI), Nonkin Collectivism (NC), and Nonkin Individualism (NI). KC and Kl were strongly inversely related, but NC and Nl were only moderately so. Whereas KC and NC were moderately related within each of the 3 student groups, Kl and Nl were moderately related only among Koreans and Asian Americans, and not among European Americans. Thus, the meanings of collectivism and individualism vary with ingroup and culture. Measurement, methodological, and conceptual implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reinterpreting individualism and collectivism: Their religious roots and monologic versus dialogic person–other relationship.

Examining the religious roots of individualism and collectivism and seeing them as defining alternative conceptions of the person–other relationship reveal a close link between Christianity and the former and between rabbinic Judaism and the latter. Comparisons between these 2 religious formations in the Western world expose a relationship between Christian individualism and an instrumental and monologic understanding of the person–other relationship and a contrasting rabbinic view that offers a formative and dialogic understanding of that relationship. Because the Christian view has been dominant, its understandings have framed the debates on individualism–collectivism and defined the options available for the person–other relationship, providing a somewhat distorted picture of the possibilities for humankind. The dialogic and formative perspective of the rabbinic tradition introduces an alternative portrait of human nature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism.

Do differences in individualism and collectivism influence values, self-concept content, relational assumptions, and cognitive style? On the one hand, the cross-national literature provides an impressively consistent picture of the predicted systematic differences; on the other hand, the nature of the evidence is inconclusive. Cross-national evidence is insufficient to argue for a causal process, and comparative data cannot specify if effects are due to both individualism and collectivism, only individualism, only collectivism, or other factors (including other aspects of culture). To address these issues, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of the individualism and collectivism priming literature, with follow-up moderator analyses. Effect sizes were moderate for relationality and cognition, small for self-concept and values, robust across priming methods and dependent variables, and consistent in direction and size with cross-national effects. Results lend support to a situated model of culture in which cross-national differences are not static but dynamically consistent due to the chronic and moment-to-moment salience of individualism and collectivism. Examination of the unique effects of individualism and collectivism versus other cultural factors (e.g., honor, power) awaits the availability of research that primes these factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The lens of personhood: Viewing the self and others in a multicultural society.

Explored some aspects of the subjective experience of individualism and collectivism in Israel, a society that simultaneously emphasizes both worldviews. Ss were Arab and Jewish Israeli students (Study 1 n?=?211, Study 2 n?=?370, Study 3 n?=?160, and Study 4 n?=?280). As hypothesized, endorsing individualism as a worldview was related to focusing on private aspects of the self and conceptualizing the self in terms of distinctions between the self and others. Hypotheses suggesting a relationship between collectivism, centrality of social identities to self-definition, a focus on public aspects of the self, and heightened perception of intergroup conflict were also supported by the data. Unexpectedly, endorsement of an individualistic worldview was also related to these variables. Discussion focuses on the meld of individualism and collectivism that may occur in Israel. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Apparent sex differences in cooperation–competition: A function of individualism.

Of the studies investigating sex differences among Anglo-American children, some have found boys more competitive than girls, whereas others have found the opposite or no differences. Analysis of previous cooperation–competition (C-C) studies, however, reveals that in many studies either the cooperative or the competitive alternative has been confounded with individualism (i.e., offers own-gain maximization) and that the sex differences in observed C-C vary systematically as a function of individualism. To test the hypothesis that sex differences in individualism can account for the apparently contradictory finding regarding sex differences in C-C, 80 3rd–5th graders (42 girls, 38 boys) made 24 choices on 4 choice cards that systematically varied with respect to individualism. As predicted, girls were more individualistic than boys and appeared more cooperative in situations in which individualism and cooperation were confounded, but girls were more competitive than boys when individualism and competition were confounded. Results point to the conclusion that the apparent contradictions found in studies of sex differences in C-C among children are due to the confounding effects of individualism. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empowerment and continuous improvement in the United States, Mexico, Poland, and India: Predicting fit on the basis of the dimensions of power distance and individualism.

Although variations in national cultures predominate as explanations for the belief that universal approaches to management do not exist, there have been few reports of systematic studies. Data from employees of a single firm with operations in the United States, Mexico, Poland, and India were used to test the fit of empowerment and continuous improvement practices with national culture. Using the theoretical constructs of individualism–collectivism and power distance, the authors predicted that the practices would be more congruent in some cultures than in others and that value congruence would result in job satisfaction. Using structural equations modeling, the authors found that empowerment was negatively associated with satisfaction in India but positively associated in the other 3 samples. Continuous improvement was positively associated with satisfaction in all samples. Substantive, theoretical, and methodological implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religion's influence on culture and psychology.

Comments on E. Sampson's (see record 2001-16333-002) linking individualism and collectivism to religious origins. The author provides examples of cultures which are both Christian and collectivist, in contrast to what is predicted by Sampson's theory. The author draws upon comments made by L. S. Vygotsky on the culture of precommunist Russia to highlight the difficulty with abstracting the influence of religion on individualism and collectivism from the traditional East-West framework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cultural construction of self-enhancement: An examination of group-serving biases.

Self-serving biases, found routinely in Western samples, have not been observed in Asian samples. Yet given the orientation toward individualism and collectivism in these 2 cultures, respectively, it is imperative to examine whether parallel differences emerge when the target of evaluation is the group. It may be that Asians show a group-serving bias parallel to the Western self-serving bias. In 2 studies, group-serving biases were compared across European Canadian, Asian Canadian, and Japanese students. Study 1 revealed that Japanese students evaluated a family member less positively than did both groups of Canadian students. Study 2 replicated this pattern with students' evaluations of their universities. The data suggest that cultural differences in enhancement biases are robust, generalizing to individuals' evaluations of their groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Wearing the cloak: Antecedents and consequences of creating facades of conformity.

This study examines a select set of relationships proposed in P. F. Hewlin’s (2003) conceptual model of antecedents and consequences of creating facades of conformity. Results from a survey study of 238 employees working in multiple industries indicate that perceived nonparticipative work environments, minority status, self-monitoring, and collectivism are related to creating facades of conformity. Emotional exhaustion serves as a mediator between creating facades of conformity and members’ intention to leave the organization. Collectivism moderates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and intention to leave. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural syndromes and age moderate the emotional impact of illness intrusiveness in rheumatoid arthritis.

Objective: The authors investigated cultural syndromes (multidimensional vectors comprising culturally based attitudes, values, and beliefs) and age as moderators of the emotional impact of illness intrusiveness—illness-induced lifestyle disruptions—in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and examined illness intrusiveness effects in total and separately for three life domains (relationships and personal development, intimacy, and instrumental). Research Method/Design: People with RA (n = 105) completed the Illness Intrusiveness Ratings, Individualism–Collectivism, and Center for Epidemiologic Studies—Depression scales in a one-on-one interview. Results: Controlling for disease and background characteristics, the association between illness intrusiveness (total score and the Relationships and Personal Development subscale) and distress was inverse when young adults with RA endorsed high horizontal individualism. Illness intrusiveness into intimacy was associated with increased distress, and this intensified when respondents endorsed high vertical individualism, horizontal collectivism, vertical collectivism, or low horizontal individualism. The negative emotional impact of illness intrusiveness into intimacy diminished with increasing age. Conclusion: Given an aging and increasingly pluralistic society, diversity can no longer be ignored in addressing the psychosocial impact of chronic, disabling disease. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individualism and Christianity.

Comments on E. Sampson's (see record 2001-16333-002) linking individualism and collectivism to religious origins. The author comments on Sampson's overgeneralization of Protestant individualism to all branches of Christianity, and describes similarities between Roman Catholicism and rabbinic Judaism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism.

The constructs of horizontal (H) and vertical (V) individualism (I) and collectivism (C) were theoretically defined and empirically supported. Study 1 confirmed, via factor analysis, that the 4 constructs, HI, V1, HC, and VC, which were previously found in the United States, which has an individualist culture, also were found in Korea which has a collectivist culture. Study 2 investigated multimethod-multitrait matrices measuring the constructs and generally supported their convergent and divergent validity. Study 3 showed how these 4 constructs relate to previously identified components by H. C. Triandis and colleagues. Study 4 showed the relationships of the measurement of the 4 constructs to some of the measures used by other researchers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sampson among the Philistines.

Comments on E. Sampson's (see record 2001-16333-002) linking individualism and collectivism to religious origins. The author comments critically on Sampson's grouping of all branches of Christianity in his critique of Protestant individualism. He points out theological subtleties and their historical roots to demonstrate the heterogeneous nature of Christianity and the relative similarity of Christian and Jewish intellectual traditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture and psychology in Hong Kong.

Comments on a discussion of clinical psychology in Hong Kong by D. Ho (see record 1986-15498-001). It is argued that Ho's otherwise admirable article is marred by the misidentification of Maslow and Rogers as "modern prophets of individualism," as both would have accepted Ho's synthesis of Western individualism and Chinese collectivism. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Collectivism-individualism in everyday social life: The middle kingdom and the melting pot.

Used the Rochester Interaction Record (RIR) to investigate the effects of individualism–collectivism on everyday social interaction. Triandis (in press) defined collectivism as placing great emphasis on (a) the views, needs, and goals of the in-group rather than of oneself, (b) social norms and duty defined by the in-group rather than behavior to get pleasure, (c) beliefs shared with the in-group rather than beliefs that distinguish oneself from in-group, (d) great readiness to cooperate with in-group members, and (e) intense emotional attachment to the in-group. University students in the United States, an individualistic country, and Hong Kong, which is highly collectivistic, maintained the RIR for 2 weeks. Consistent with predictions, the Hong Kong students had longer but fewer interactions (half as many) with fewer people, had a higher percentage of group and task interactions, and indicated greater self- and other-disclosure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)