Sex roles as social conventions: The development of children's conceptions of sex-role stereotypes.

97 kindergartners and 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th graders were interviewed about their conceptions of 4 rule topics: sex-role stereotypes of toys, sex-role stereotypes of adult occupations, conventional table manners, and a natural law. Results indicate that Ss' knowledge of sex-role stereotypes and beliefs in the flexibility and cultural relativity of both sex-role stereotypes and a social convention significantly increased with age. Ss' beliefs in the flexibility and cultural relativity of a natural law decreased with age. Changes in conceptions of sex-role stereotype flexibility occurred concurrently with changes in social-conventional flexibility but were unrelated to changes in conceptions of the natural law. Findings suggest that sex stereotypes and social conventions are different aspects of the single conceptual domain of social convention. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instruction in narrative structure on children's writing.

Examined the possibility that direct instruction in story constituents and their interrelations could enhance 4th-grade children's organization in story writing. Whether the special instruction might affect quality, coherence, use of temporal and causal relations, and creativity in writing was also examined. 19 4th graders who scored at a low level on measures of knowledge of narrative structure were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments—instruction in knowledge of story structure or instruction in dictionary-word study. The instruction included a short-term, intensive phase with 6 sessions during 2 wks and a long-term, intermittent phase with 10 sessions during 5 wks. Instruction in narrative structure had a strong positive effect on organization in storywriting and also enhanced quality. There were no differential effects of the 2 treatments on coherence, use of temporal or causal links in writing, or creativity. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of behavior and family structure on perceptions.

45 men and 98 women enrolled in a course on adolescents responded to 1 of 9 paragraphs describing a male adolescent meeting with his school counselor. The adolescent's family structure (nuclear, single mother, stepfather) and recent behavior (good, bad, neutral) were varied. Respondents completed the Predicted Behavior of an Adolescent Questionnaire (PBAQ), the First Impressions Questionnaire (FIQ), and an open-ended question asking them to "explain" the adolescent's situation. Although data from the open-ended question indicated that family structure information was influential in forming theories about the adolescent, the results from the PBAQ and the FIQ did not indicate such an influence. It was concluded that college students make subtle judgments about adolescents based on minimal information, but how strongly such judgments affect their perceptions of adolescents and how behavior toward adolescents is affected have yet to be examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of linguistic structure on children's ability to isolate initial consonants.

In 4 experiments, preschoolers and kindergartners were asked to pronounce the initial consonants of spoken words. Children performed better on short words, such as bay, than on long words, such as bonus. Words with initial consonant clusters, such as brow, were more difficult for the children than words without initial consonant clusters, such as bar. A consonant cluster at the end of the word did not harm performance. Children did relatively well on words like suppose, for which the word's 1st syllable, /s/, constitutes a correct answer on the initial consonant isolation task. Children did more poorly on words like satin, for which this was not the case. Thus, the linguistic structure of a word affects children's ability to isolate the initial consonant. Implications for the design of phonemic awareness instruction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of competitive reward structure and valence of outcome on children's achievement attributions.

Studied how success and failure outcomes occurring under competitive and noncompetitive reward structures influenced children's attributional and affective responses. 40 5th-grade boys solved sets of achievement-related puzzles, working in pairs in which one succeeded and one failed at the task. Results show that the reward structure of the performance setting was an important determinant of self- and interpersonal evaluations. Competitive conditions caused self-punitive behavior for failure outcomes and some ego-enhancing strategies for success outcomes. Failing Ss expressed strong negative affect and perceived themselves as less capable than their successful partners, while successful Ss perceived themselves as more deserving of reward than their failing partners. No differences in self-other attributions or affect were found in noncompetitive conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of sex stereotypes on children's exploration and memory: A competence versus performance distinction.

25 girls and 31 boys (aged 4–9 yrs) were presented with novel objects in 3 sex-labeled boxes and were given 6 min to explore the objects. Memory for information about the objects was tested 1 wk later. Results show that Ss tactually explored novel objects labeled for their own sex more than similar objects labeled for the other sex and remembered more detailed information about own-sex than other-sex objects. Furthermore, regardless of labeling condition, Ss recalled the sex-typed label applied by the experimenter to each object. As expected from the C. L. Martin and C. F. Halverson, Jr. (see record 1982-05576-001) schematic processing model, an incentive to remember did not improve recall in any labeling condition. The sex-typed labeling effects on exploration occurred primarily among the older children, whereas the effects on recall appeared among the younger and older boys and the younger girls. The results suggest that sex stereotypes restrict children's behavior by limiting their competence rather than their performance. Findings are discussed in relation to an earlier study by the 1st author and R. C. Endsley (see record 1983-32397-001). (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of maltreatment on young children's socioemotional development: An attachment theory perspective.

The effects of maltreatment on early childhood development were examined in three domains suggested by attachment theory: relationships with novel adults, effectance motivation, and cognitive maturity. Three samples of children between 4 and 8 years of age were studied: 93 maltreated children, 67 demographically matched nonmaltreated children from families receiving welfare, and 30 nonmaltreated children from middle-class families. Children's scores on 10 dependent variables across the three domains of interest were factor analyzed, and two theoretically meaningful factors emerged. Maltreated children scored lower than welfare children, who in turn scored lower than middle-class children, on a factor measuring secure readiness to learn in the company of novel adults. Maltreated children and welfare children also scored higher than middle-class children, but did not significantly differ from each other, on a factor measuring outer-directedness. Results indicate that, during early childhood, maltreatment disrupts a dynamic balance between the motivation to establish safe, secure relationships with adults and the motivation to venture out to explore the world in a competency-promoting fashion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fairness or stereotypes? Young children's priorities when evaluating group exclusion and inclusion.

Seventy-two children (35 4?-year-olds and 37 5?-year-olds), nearly evenly divided by gender, from European American (71%), Asian American (17%), and African American (12%) middle-class backgrounds, were individually interviewed about straightforward exclusion and inclusion for two gender-stereotypic peer-group contexts: activities (doll and truck play) and role-play (teacher and firefighter). All children evaluated straightforward exclusion based on gender (e.g., girls excluding a boy from doll play) as wrong and used moral reasons. Preliminary inclusion decisions in the activity contexts (choosing a boy or a girl to join the group) were based on stereotypic expectations, particularly for younger children. Given the opportunity to weigh alternative considerations, however, all children gave priority to fairness over stereotypic expectations in both multifaceted inclusion peer-group contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of maltreatment on school-age children's socioemotional development: Assessments in a day-camp setting.

This study assessed the impact of different forms of maltreatment on the socioemotional development of 5- to 11-year-old children in a day-camp setting. Obtained measures of self-esteem and peer relations for 70 neglected, emotionally abused and/or physically abused children, and 67 demographically matched nonmaltreated comparison children. Completed counselor assessments of the children's self-esteem and provided both counselor and peer ratings of the children's prosocial, aggressive, and withdrawn behavior. Found maltreated children to score lower than the comparison children on the self-esteem and prosocial measures and higher on the withdrawn behavior ratings. Found welfare dependency to exert an independent additive negative effect, beyond maltreatment history, on the socioemotional development of the children. Results are discussed in relation to past studies of high-risk children and existing theories of developmental psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on head start teachers and children.

Effects of a 1-semester professional development (PD) intervention that included expert coaching with Head Start teachers were investigated in a randomized controlled trial with 88 teachers and 759 children. Differential effects of technologically mediated (remote) versus in-person (on-site) delivery of individualized coaching with teachers also were examined in a random assignment design. Hierarchical linear model analyses revealed positive PD intervention effects on general classroom environment (d = 0.99) and classroom supports for early literacy and language development (d = 0.92), and on children's letter knowledge (d = 0.29), blending skills (d = 0.18), writing (d = 0.17), and concepts about print (d = 0.22). No significant intervention effects on teaching practices and children's outcomes related to oral language were found. There were no differential effects of remote versus on-site delivery of literacy coaching. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Triangles in the family circle: Effects of family structure on marriage, parenting, and child adjustment.

Mothers, fathers, and 6- to 10-year-old children used the Family Cohesion Index to type their family system as cohesive (all close), separate (all distant), triangulated (cross-generational coalitions), or detouring (child excluded from the parental sub-system). Family members agreed modestly with one another. Multivariate analyses of variance showed that parents in triangulated families were higher in marital conflict and dissatisfaction than were cohesive and detouring parents. Children in triangulated families reported more interparental conflict and more negative affect in the family. Children in detouring families rated themselves higher in self-blame for their parents' conflicts, and their parents rated them highest in internalizing problems. Parents in separate families rated their children highest in externalizing problems. Implications for the integration of family systems perspectives with research on marriage and parenting are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ordinal position differences in children's family interactions.

The purpose of this study was to compare the interactions of oldest and youngest children with parents and siblings. Twenty first-born and 17 last-born children between the ages of 4 and 8 from two- or three-child families were selected from a larger sample for this study. Their interactions at home with other family members were observed and coded. Oldest children emitted more of their total behaviors to parents than to siblings, whereas last-born children did not differ significantly in the total number of behaviors emitted to the two family member groups. When the incidence of individual behavior categories was examined, no significant main effect due to ordinal position was found; however, a significant interaction of ordinal position with family member group for some behaviors was found. Both parents and siblings emitted similar levels of prosocial responses toward oldest and last-born children. However, oldest children were more likely to be the recipient of negative responses from parents and siblings than were last-born children of the same age. Implications of these findings for understanding the influence of ordinal position on social behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing associations between young children's relationships with mothers and teachers.

The current study was conducted to examine associations between children's maternal attachments and the quality of their relationships with teachers at 3 time points. The quality of the teacher-child relationship at 54 months, kindergarten, and 1st grade was regressed on blocks of predictors that included maternal attachment at 15, 24, and 36 months. There were 4 main findings. First, insecure/other attachment was a negative predictor of the quality of the teacher-child relationship at all 3 time points. Second, avoidant attachment was a negative predictor of the quality of the teacher-child relationship at 54 months. Third, in kindergarten, avoidant children in more hours of school had better quality relationships with teachers than avoidant children in fewer hours. Fourth, there were associations among the quality of the teacher-child relationship at all 3 time points. Implications for practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of socioeconomic status on children's classification and free recall.

29 kindergarten and 29 1st-grade children were divided into 3 SES levels based on their parents' education level (college, high school, or less than high school) and given 2 sort/recall tasks on sets of pictures that could be organized on the basis of familiar taxonomic or complementary relations. On 1 task, Ss sorted pictures into identical groupings on 2 consecutive trials prior to recall; on the other task, Ss sorted the pictures only once. It was found that Ss from college-educated families were more apt to sort items on the basis of taxonomic relations than Ss from high-school-educated and less-than-high-school-educated families. However, there were no significant differences in levels of recall or clustering. Results indicate that young children from low-SES homes will demonstrate high levels of memory performance when tasks are constructed so that they are familiar with the relations among the to-be-remembered items. The appropriateness of distinguishing children's cognition in terms of A. R. Jensen's (see record 1969-09740-001) Level I vs Level II dichotomy is discussed in light of recent research examining the role of knowledge base on children's memory functioning. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of low-birth-weight children's cognitive development.

Investigates the developmental patterns of cognitive performance over the 1st 3 yrs in a large sample of Black and White low birthweight (LBW), premature children (N?=?762), selected from the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP). The IHDP is a randomized clinical trial to test the efficacy of education and family support services in reducing the incidence of developmental delay in LBW preterm infants at 8 clinical sites. Developmental patterns are identified by means of cluster analysis on the basis of the intelligence test scores at 12, 24, and 36 mo (corrected for gestational age). Five developmental patterns were identified, including (1) high stable, (2) high decline to average, (3) high decline to below average, (4) average decline to below average, and (5) very low stable. Results reveal that these patterns of cognitive development can be discriminated by 3 dimensions: maternal environment, children's neonatal health status, and treatment. Mother's cognitive ability and quality of a child's home environment were also found to be associated with LBW children's developmental patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of stereotypes in decision making and information-processing strategies.

Investigated the effects of stereotyping on reactions to a behavioral transgression and the recall of information bearing on it in 2 experiments with 112 undergraduates. Ss read a case file describing a transgression (a job-related infraction in Exp I, a criminal act in Exp II) committed by a target. In some cases, the target's transgression was stereotypic of the target's ethnic group (conveyed through his name), and in other cases it was not. After reading the case file, Ss judged the likelihood that the transgression would recur and recommended punishment for the offense. These judgment data supported the hypothesis that stereotypes function as judgmental heuristics. Ss used a stereotype of the target to infer the reasons for the transgression and based their punishment decisions on the implications of these inferences, considering other relevant information only when a stereotype-based explanation of the behavior was not available. However, recall data suggest that, once a stereotype-based impression of the crime and its determinants was formed, Ss reviewed other available information to confirm the implications of this impression. This led to differential recall of presented information, depending on whether its implications were consistent with, inconsistent with, or irrelevant to those of the stereotype. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of puberty on family relations: Effects of pubertal status and pubertal timing.

This investigation examines the impact of pubertal status and pubertal timing, independent of each other and of chronological age, on the family relationships of adolescent boys and girls. The sample is composed of 204 families with a firstborn child between the ages of 10 and 15. Measures included adolescent and parental reports of closeness, conflict, and autonomy as well as assessments of each adolescent's pubertal status and pubertal timing (early, on time, or late maturing). Findings indicate that (a) pubertal maturation is associated with increased emotional distance between youngsters and their parents; (b) pubertal maturation (among girls) and early pubertal maturation (among boys) increase conflict between adolescents and their mothers, but not necessarily fathers; and (c) pubertal maturation, and especially late maturation, may be accompanied by increased behavioral autonomy for the adolescent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of nonpathological sex role stereotypes on student evaluations of psychiatric patients.

50 male and 50 female undergraduate judges evaluated statements (drawn from the MMPI Mf and L scales) that were attributed to male and female seriously disturbed psychiatric patients but that were not symptomatic of disturbance. When a male judge rated a female patient who expressed an attitude conventionally associated with a masculine sex role, she was evaluated as more disturbed than if she had described herself neutrally or in terms of a feminine stereotype. No similar bias occurred among female judges or in evaluations of male patients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)