Current status of research and theory in human problem solving.

Summarizes problem-solving theories in 3 areas: traditional learning, cognitive-Gestalt approaches, and more recent computer and mathematical models of problem solving. Recent empirical studies are categorized according to the type of behavior elicited by the particular problem-solving task. Anagram, "insight," water-jar, and arithmetic problems are considered to be solved by covert trial-and-error behavior. Switch-light, classification, probability-learning, and numerous "miscellaneous" tasks are approached by overt trial-and-error behavior. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational and gender differences: Sixth-grade students' mathematical problem-solving behavior.

Differences in boys' and girls' mathematical problem-solving behavior were studied in relation to 2 types of mathematics tasks: computations and applications. Participants were 79 boys and 79 girls of the 6th grade from 12 regular schools. In 2 separate individual sessions, cognitive and motivational variables were examined before, during, and after task execution. Differences in mathematical problem-solving behavior were dependent on the contents of the mathematics tasks and on gender. Interactions between type of task and gender were also noted. With respect to applied problem solving, girls rated themselves lower on confidence than boys and attributed bad results more often to lack of capacity and to the difficulty of the task. No gender differences were observed in relation to computations. Unexpectedly, girls had higher persistence than did boys, but only during applied problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent problem-solving thinking.

Tested the hypothesis that adolescent psychiatric patients would be deficient with respect to normal controls in their interpersonal problem-solving skills by comparing 33 patients and 53 high school student controls on 7 tasks reflecting different aspects of problem solving. With IQ covaried out, controls obtained significantly higher scores on the tasks evaluating optional thinking, social means-ends thinking, and role taking, but not on the tasks measuring problem recognition, causal thinking, emotional means-ends thinking, and consequential thinking. Findings are interpreted within a developmental framework of interpersonal problem-solving thinking. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapeutic jurisprudence, preventive law, and creative problem solving: An essay on harnessing emotion and human connection.

Combining the principles of therapeutic jurisprudence, preventive law, and creative problem solving reveals an overuse by legal professionals of a "judging" problem-solving style that emphasizes the problem-solving tools of order, power, and normative expectation. It neglects—sometimes even suppresses—human emotion and interpersonal relationship, which are also important tools for solving problems. In contrast, psychologists often use an "accommodation" style of problem solving that emphasizes emotion and human connection. Legal professionals could be more effective and contribute importantly to community discourse were they to incorporate the accommodation style more frequently in legal problem solving. Doing so poses some threat to formal equality and due process, but therapeutic jurisprudence and preventive law scholarship offer promising examples for reconciling the accommodation style with traditional liberal values. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem-solving skills in suicidal psychiatric patients.

We examined a diathesis-stress-hopelessness model of suicidal behavior, the diathesis in question being a cognitive deficit in problem solving. We further expanded an analysis of the problem-solving skills and deficits of suicidal persons. This we accomplished by comparing a sample of 50 hospitalized patients on suicidal precautions with a control sample of 50 nonsuicidal hospitalized patients. The suicidal group differed from the control group on a number of dependent measures in accordance with the hypothesis that suicidal individuals are deficient in impersonal and interpersonal problem solving, experience more stress, and are more hopeless. Interpersonal problem-solving deficits were confined to tasks requiring subjects to generate alternative solutions to problems, as well as to anticipate negative consequences for proposed solutions. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal and emotional problem solving among narcotic drug abusers.

"Real-life" interpersonal and emotional problem solving was measured in 40 narcotics abusers in ambulatory treatment, 20 in "good" standing and 20 in "poor" standing. A modified means–ends problem-solving procedure was used that required narrative responses containing relevant means (RMs) for solving 7 problems. Good Ss had more total RMs, used more introspective and emotional RMs, were better at RM recognition, but did not have more sufficient narratives than the poor Ss. Results are consistent with those of previous studies of problem-solving thinking. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluation of training in creative problem solving.

"The experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of a creative problem-solving course on creative abilities and selected personality variables." There were 3 matched groups of 54 Ss each. 1 group was enrolled in courses in creative problem solving; the other 2 were enrolled in other courses. 11 prepost test measures were used. "Results are interpreted to indicate that the creative problem-solving course produces a significant increment on certain ability measures associated with practical creativity and on the personality variable dominance." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of solving related proofs on memory and transfer in geometry problem solving.

Three experiments investigate the relationship between memory and problem solving in the domain of geometry theorem proving. In Exp 1, Ss' memories for an original problem-solving episode were interfered with retroactively by solving a 2nd problem that had the same diagram, but no memory effects were observed that depended on the 2nd problem's logical similarity to the original. Results suggest that the diagram is the basis for geometry problem-solving memories. Exps 2 and 3 investigated problem-solving memories in use by examining Ss' transfer to a 3rd (test) problem. As with the memory results, transfer was reduced when the 1st 2 problems had the same diagram relative to when they had 2 different diagrams. Transfer was reduced most in the condition with the greatest proportion of memory-interfering steps. Results suggest that the structure and quality of problem-solving memories affect problem-solving transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rational versus intuitive problem solving: How thinking “off the beaten path” can stimulate creativity.

We compared the effects of rational versus intuitive problem solving on creativity. We argued that the relative effectiveness of these approaches depends upon an individual's typical thinking style such that individuals will be more creative when they adopt a problem-solving approach that differs from their typical style of thinking (e.g., individuals who avoid rational thinking will exhibit higher creativity when they are instructed to rely on rational problem solving). We tested this hypothesis in a sample of undergraduate students generating creative ideas in response to a real-world problem. In support of our hypothesis, we found that problem-solving approach and individual differences in thinking style interact such that creativity is highest when individuals use a nontypical problem-solving approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem solving and behavior modification.

Selectively reviewed problem-solving theory and research for possible applications in behavior modification. Problem solving was defined as a behavioral process which (a) makes available a variety of response alternatives for dealing with a problematic situation, and (b) increases the probability of selecting the most effective response from among these alternatives. 5 stages of problem solving were identified: (a) general orientation or "set," (b) problem definition and formulation, (c) generation of alternatives, (d) decision making, and (e) verification. Training in problem solving was conceptualized as a form of self-control training, I.e., the individual "learns how to solve problems" and thus discovers for himself the most effective way of responding. General guidelines are presented for clinical application with cases characterized by a deficit in effective behavior and its emotional consequences. (2 P. Ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lasting Reductions in Illegal Moves Following an Increase in Their Cost: Evidence From River-Crossing Problems.

The authors present 3 experiments demonstrating ways to reduce illegal moves in problem-solving tasks. They propose a 3-stage framework for the rejection of illegal moves. An illegal move must come to mind and be selected, checked for legality, and correctly rejected. Illegal move reduction can occur at any stage. Control group participants benefited from solving the same problem twice but failed to show transfer to an isomorph, replicating results from S. K. Reed, G. W. Ernst, and R. Banerji (1974). Participants who were penalized for making illegal moves showed reductions in illegal moves even when solving a novel isomorph without penalty. The authors propose that illegal move reduction occurs when solvers are cautious and check moves for legality frequently. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and social problem solving.

20 depressed patients with major depressive disorder, 20 nondepressed matched control Ss, and 17 patients with anxiety disorders were compared in different measures of social problem solving. Problem solving was assessed with the Means-Ends Problem-Solving Test (Study 1), the solution of personal problems, and a problem-solving questionnaire (Study 2). Results showed that, as predicted, depressed Ss suffered from a deficit in problem solving in all 3 measures. The majority of these deficits were also displayed by the clinical control group rather than being specific to a diagnosis of depression. However, depressed Ss produced less effective solutions than did normal and clinical control Ss. The results suggest that depressed and anxious patients may have difficulties at different stages of the problem-solving process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some effects of limited feedback on performance and problem-solving strategy in a Logo microworld.

The effect of limiting the availability of immediate feedback in a Logo microworld was examined by observing children solve problems involving the reproduction of given rotations without the information provided by a rotating turtle. It was found that limiting the feedback in this way reduced the incidence of trial-and-error problem-solving strategies. There was also evidence that higher level problem-solving strategies, which took into account a wider range of problem features, were used to compensate for the restricted access to immediate feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social problem solving in suicidal adolescents.

Whether adolescent suicide attempters would have deficits in interpersonal problem solving and the relation between social problem solving, suicide intent, and medical lethality were evaluated. Compared with psychiatric and normal controls, adolescents who attempted suicide exhibited poorer social problem-solving abilities, particularly in terms of problem orientation. Specifically, suicide attempters brought more maladaptive cognitive-emotional-behavioral response sets to problematic situations than did psychiatric and normal controls. Both suicide attempters and psychiatric controls had similar deficits in problem-solving skills (e.g., generation of alternatives, decision making, and solution implementation) compared with nonhospitalized peers. Social problem solving was not found to be correlated with suicide lethality or intent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Too upset to think: The interplay of borderline personality features, negative emotions, and social problem solving in the laboratory.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is associated with poor social problem solving and problems with emotion regulation. In this study, the social problem-solving performance of undergraduates with high (n = 26), mid (n = 32), or low (n = 29) levels of BPD features was assessed with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised and using the means-ends problem-solving procedure before and after a social rejection stressor. The high-BP group, but not the low-BP group, showed a significant reduction in relevant solutions to social problems and more inappropriate solutions following the negative emotion induction. Increases in self-reported negative emotions during the emotion induction mediated the relationship between BP features and reductions in social problem-solving performance. In addition, the high-BP group demonstrated trait deficits in social problem solving on the Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised. These findings suggest that future research must examine social problem solving under differing emotional conditions, and that clinical interventions to improve social problem solving among persons with BP features should focus on responses to emotional contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling for indecisiveness: Problem-solving and anxiety-management training.

Evaluated counseling procedures for reducing anxious vocational indecision. 32 university students with this problem were identified and randomly assigned to 5 training conditions: anxiety management, problem solving, a combination of the 2, a placebo procedure, and a no-treatment condition. The same counselor group administered the treatment and placebo procedures. The experimental design consisted of pre- and postassessment of vocational, anxiety-related, and problem-solving variables. A combination of anxiety-management and problem-solving training resulted in significantly greater gains than either method alone with respect to vocational exploratory behavior, awareness of career plans, and problem-solving behavior. It is concluded that vocational indecision appears to be due to deficiencies in problem solving and execution of chosen alternatives. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of interpersonal problem-solving training with chronic aftercare patients on problem-solving component skills and effectiveness of solutions.

Administered group skills training to 7 chronic psychiatric patients (aged 24–45 yrs) who were enrolled in a partial-hospitalization program and had difficulty solving interpersonal problems. Training focused on the development of 5 problem-solving components: problem identification, goal definition, solution evaluation, evaluation of alternatives, and selection of a best solution. A multiple-baseline design was used to demonstrate training effectiveness through improved problem solving on trained situations and through skill generalization to novel, untrained situations. Maintenance of the training was evaluated after 1 and 4 mo. Social validation was accomplished by comparing the problem-solving competency of the patient sample with skills demonstrated by 20 normal nonpsychiatric persons (aged 22–60 yrs). Results show that following training, the frequency of targeted problem-solving components increased substantially. Training effects were generalized to unfamiliar problem situations and largely maintained at follow-ups. For both problem-solving situations, Ss' overall problem-solving was equivalent to the competency levels displayed by the normal community sample. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Component processes in bridge bidding and novel problem-solving tasks.

Investigated how age and skill level jointly determine performance in a bridge bidding task and explored the link between memory capacity, speed of processing, age, and problem solving efficiency. Ss were 45 bridge players (aged 21–71 yrs) who participated in 2 experiments. Findings show that age related slower bidding was due primarily to slowing in encoding and response processes, rather than to the manipulation of encoded information. Skill-related accuracy and rapidity in bidding was due to faster localization of honor cards, conversion to point values, and addition of points. Results of 2 problem-solving tasks suggest that there is no single locus (speed, working memory capacity) for age-related declines in information processing efficiency. Component processes for skilled vs novel problem-solving showed diverging patterns of correlation with age. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)