The direct and indirect household energy requirements in the Republic of Korea from 1980 to 2000—An input–output analysis

As energy conservation can be realized through changes in the composition of goods and services consumed, there is a need to assess indirect and total household energy requirements. The Korean household sector was responsible for about 52% of the national primary energy requirement in the period from 1980 to 2000. Of this total, more than 60% of household energy requirement was indirect. Thus, not only direct but also indirect household energy requirement should be the target of energy conservation policies. Electricity became the main fuel in household energy use in 2000. Households consume more and more electricity intensive goods and services, a sign of increasing living standards. Increases in household consumption expenditure were responsible for a relatively high growth of energy consumption. Switching to consumption of less energy intensive products and decrease in energy intensities of products in 1990s contributed substantially to reduce the increase in the total household energy requirement. A future Korean study should apply a hybrid method as to reduce errors occurred by using uniform (average) prices in constructing energy input–output tables and as to make energy intensities of different years more comparable.     

Energy requirements of households in Brazil

In this study we determine the total (direct plus indirect) energy requirements of a given set of Brazilian households. We use a generalized input–output model in order to calculate the energy embodied in goods and services purchased by households of different income level in 11 capital cities of Brazil. Our results show that, on average, the total energy intensity of household expenditure increases with income level, although there is a considerable spread in energy intensities within income classes as well as disparities between regions of the country. The total yearly average energy requirement per household in Brazil in 1995–96 was 173.6 GJ (61% of which was indirect), with 32.8 GJ for the lower income level (66% of which was indirect), and 602.2 GJ for the higher income level (62% of which was indirect). Of this total average energy requirement, 76% was required for only three consumption categories: utilities (31%), mobility (28%) and shelter (17%). This analysis calls for the attention that has to be given not only to the direct energy consumption (as motor fuels and electricity, for example) but also to the consumption categories that encompass an important part of the indirect energy requirement of households in capital cities in Brazil.     

The impact of household consumption on energy use and CO2 emissions in China

In this paper, the consumer lifestyle approach is applied to analyze the impact of consumption by urban and rural households on energy use and CO₂ emissions for different regions and income levels in China. Grey Model is used to compare the relationship between energy consumption, consumption expenditure and CO₂ emissions for different lifestyles. The results show that direct energy consumption is diverse for urban households and simple for rural households in China. Direct energy consumption and CO₂ emissions are increasing faster for urban than for rural households. Indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions for urban households are much greater than the direct consumption values. The total indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions differ by regions and the structures are different, but the latter differences are not obvious. The impact of household income is enormous. Indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions are higher for high-income than for low-income households. The structural difference for indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions for households with different income levels is significant. The higher the income, the more diverse is the energy consumption and CO₂ emission structure. The structures for indirect energy use and CO₂ emissions are diverse for urban households, but simple for rural households.     

Power to change: Analysis of household participation in a renewable energy and energy efficiency programme in Central Australia

The Australian government funded a national Solar City program (2008–2013) to support communities to increase adoption of energy efficiency measures and renewable energy technology. One community was Alice Springs, a town with about 9000 households in the geographic centre of Australia. The programme offered a package of support: free energy audits, discounts for the purchase of renewable energy technology and energy efficiency measures, and ongoing information. Households that adopted solar hot water and photovoltaic systems reduced their electricity usage immediately after adoption by 10% and 34% respectively, and this was maintained in the long term. A small rebound effect of 15% was observed in the photovoltaic adopters. It was observed that, on average, households that adopted only energy efficiency measures did not have a significant reduction in their electricity usage over the long term. However, consistent with expectations, this study did show that there was a significant correlation between the number of energy efficiency measures adopted and the greatest household reduction in electricity usage. These contrary results indicate that there are additional factors involved. The connection between the effective use of measures, coincident behavioural change or increased energy awareness and greater energy reduction is discussed.     

Comprehensive evaluation of household indirect energy consumption and impacts of alternative energy policies in China by input–output analysis

Households consume a large amount of indirect energy through the consumption of goods and services. This fact makes the quantitative analysis of indirect household energy consumption the foundation of energy policy design. This paper improves the compilation method of energy input–output tables, and establishes a sequence of energy input–output tables for China. Based on these tables, the indirect energy consumption of both rural and urban households is calculated. Then, with economic data for the year of 2005, the adjusted input–output price model is applied to evaluate how the alternative energy policies impact production prices, consumption prices, and real income of rural and urban households through the mechanism of indirect energy consumption by using electricity as an example. This research has practical implications for Chinese economy. The integration of energy-efficiency improvements and energy prices increase serves as a means to achieve both economic and energy conservation goals, and may also have a positive effect on residents’ real income and a minimal effect on production prices.     

Concerned consumption. Global warming changing household domestication of energy

This paper addresses possible effects of the growing focus on global warming on households’ domestication of energy and the dynamics of energy consumption by comparing data pertaining to the domestication of energy within Norwegian households from two time periods: first, 1991–1995, when climate change was given little public attention, and, second, 2006–2009, after climate change became a major public concern. In the first period, we observed that the domestication of energy resulted in an energy culture emphasizing comfort and convenience with respect to everyday life and the abundant supply of clean hydropower. In the second period, this culture seemed to have changed, making households more concerned about their energy consumption. Consumption of energy was linked to climate change, and many interviewees claimed to save energy. However, the dominant expectation was still to be able to manage everyday life in a convenient and comfortable way. Thus, climate change concerns produced some but not very radical changes in the practical domestication of energy, including energy saving. A main effect was feelings of guilt, tempered by arguments regarding why change is difficult and complaints about political inaction. Thus, public engagement with climate change issues may facilitate energy efficiency policy but to succeed, wider climate policy measures seem to be needed.     

Total energy consumption by Brazilian households

Budget survey data and input-output techniques are used to estimate direct and indirect energy requirements of rural and urban Brazilian households classified according to four expenditure levels. Total energy requirements are disaggregated into 11 fuels.     

Trade-linked Canada–United States household environmental impact analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions

We compare energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with total household expenditures and activities in Canada and US in 1997, the first detailed estimate of environmental burdens for Canadian households. We estimate direct burdens from published government data and indirect burdens using an industry-by-commodity, bi-national economic input–output life cycle assessment model developed in this study. Comparing 30 expenditure and two activity categories, per capita US household expenditures were 70% higher, while per capita household energy use and GHG emissions were only 10% and 44% higher, respectively. Energy use/dollar of expenditure was higher in most Canadian categories, while the average ratio of GHG emissions/energy use was higher in the US (65 vs 50 kg Eq. CO₂/GJ) due largely to a higher proportion of electricity from nonrenewable sources. Indirect environmental burdens represented 63–69% of total burdens and 62–70% of total burdens were associated with household operation and transportation. Key drivers of differences between energy profiles were: higher per capita electricity use by Canadian households, and higher US household private health care expenditures and motor fuel use. Energy-intensive production for export represented a higher proportion of Canadian production, resulting in less agreement between consumption and production-based analyses for Canada than US.     

Rural household energy consumption pattern in the disregarded villages of Bangladesh

Energy is one of the most important ingredients required to alleviate poverty and realize socio-economic and human development, which is directly interconnected to the prominence of life in rural areas. An extensive survey on household energy consumption pattern interrelating socio-economic and demographic factors was carried out in the disregarded villages of Bangladesh using stratified random sampling technique of 120 households. This paper focuses on household energy consumption, various combinations of fuels and their expenditure in the study area. Biomass, kerosene, electricity, LPG and candle were found as the energy carrier used in the rural households in this study. The study shows that 92% households use biomass, 28% LPG, 89% kerosene, 78% electricity and 27% candle as fuel types. It was found that 56% households collected biomass from their own homesteads and/or agricultural lands. Bamboo, branches, cow dung, firewood, rice husk, leaves & twigs and straw were found as the biomass for household energy use. Average monthly household expenditure for total energy was US$ 9.67 (SE, 0.31) per month while the total monthly income of the household was US$ 123 (SE, 2.53). The ratio of the total monthly energy expenditure to the total monthly income was 7.86%. The study will be helpful to understand the energy consumption system and its expenditure in the rural areas of Bangladesh and to the policy formulation for energy production, consumption and utilization.     

Conceptualizing urban household energy use: Climbing the “Energy Services Ladder”

This article begins by defining energy services and identifying how they differ according to sector, urban and rural areas, and direct and indirect uses. It then investigates household energy services divided into three classes: lower income, middle income, and upper income. It finds that the primary energy technologies involved with low-income households involve a greater number of fuels and carriers, ranging from dung and fuelwood to liquefied petroleum gas and charcoal, but a fewer number of services. Middle-income households throughout the world tend to rely on electricity and natural gas, followed by coal, liquefied petroleum gas, and kerosene. These homes utilize energy to produce a much broader range services. The upper class or rich have access to the same energy fuels, carriers, and technologies as middle-income homes and families, but consume more energy (and more high luxury items). The study highlights how focusing on energy services reorients the direction of energy policy interventions, that energy services are neither uniform nor innate, and by noting exciting areas of potential research.     

Analysis of the effect and potential of energy conservation in China

In this paper, a quantitative algorithm for direct and indirect energy savings is developed based on the database analysis of China's energy consumption per GDP in the last two decades. The result shows that direct energy savings due to improved energy conversion and end-use utilization efficiencies only account for 26.5% of the total energy savings, and that indirect energy savings due to increased added value of products, product shifts, and structure shifts in industries account for 73.5% of the total energy savings. Factors affecting indirect energy savings are then analyzed, and total energy system efficiencies and direct energy savings in 2020 are quantitatively estimated, which shows that enlarging indirect energy savings is a more crucial task for China's macro-energy conservation in the future. The paper suggests that China should pay more attention to indirect energy savings to improve the energy utilization output benefits by increasing the added value of products, optimizing product and industry structures, and improving production technologies. The potential of indirect energy savings in China is more significant compared with developed countries.     

Behavioural,physical and socio-economic factors in household cooling energy consumption

As global warming continues, the current trend implies that the uptake of air conditioning in the residential sector will go up, thus potentially increasing domestic cooling energy consumption. In this context, this paper investigates the significance of behavioural, physical and socio-economic parameters on cooling energy in order to improve energy efficiency in residential buildings. It demonstrates that such factors exert a significant indirect as well as direct influence on energy use, showing that it is particularly important to understand indirect relationships. An initial study of direct factors affecting cooling energy reveals that occupant behaviour is the most significant issue (related to choices about how often and where air conditioning is used). This is broadly confirmed by path analysis, although climate is seen to be the single most significant parameter, followed by behavioural issues, key physical parameters (e.g. air conditioning type), and finally socio-economic aspects (e.g. household income).     

Model projections for household energy use in India

Energy use in developing countries is heterogeneous across households. Present day global energy models are mostly too aggregate to account for this heterogeneity. Here, a bottom-up model for residential energy use that starts from key dynamic concepts on energy use in developing countries is presented and applied to India. Energy use and fuel choice is determined for five end-use functions (cooking, water heating, space heating, lighting and appliances) and for five different income quintiles in rural and urban areas. The paper specifically explores the consequences of different assumptions for income distribution and rural electrification on residential sector energy use and CO₂ emissions, finding that results are clearly sensitive to variations in these parameters. As a result of population and economic growth, total Indian residential energy use is expected to increase by around 65–75% in 2050 compared to 2005, but residential carbon emissions may increase by up to 9–10 times the 2005 level. While a more equal income distribution and rural electrification enhance the transition to commercial fuels and reduce poverty, there is a trade-off in terms of higher CO₂ emissions via increased electricity use.     

Promoting household energy conservation

It is commonly assumed that households must change their behaviour to reduce the problems caused by increasing levels of fossil energy use. Strategies for behaviour change will be more effective if they target the most important causes of the behaviour in question. Therefore, this paper first discusses the factors influencing household energy use. Three barriers to fossil fuel energy conservation are discussed: insufficient knowledge of effective ways to reduce household energy use, the low priority and high costs of energy savings, and the lack of feasible alternatives. Next, the paper elaborates on the effectiveness and acceptability of strategies aimed to promote household energy savings. Informational strategies aimed at changing individuals’ knowledge, perceptions, cognitions, motivations and norms, as well as structural strategies aimed at changing the context in which decisions are made, are discussed. This paper focuses on the psychological literature on household energy conservation, which mostly examined the effects of informational strategies. Finally, this paper lists important topics for future research.     

Price sensitivity of residential energy consumption in Norway

The main aim of this paper is to test the stability of the results of a model which focus on the relationship between the choice of heating equipment and the residential energy consumption. The results for the income and energy price variables are of special interest. Stability in the time dimension is tested by applying the model on micro data for each of the years 1993–1995. The parameter estimates are stable within a 95% confidence interval. However, the estimated impact of the energy price variable on energy consumption was considerably weaker in 1994 than in 1993 and 1995. The results for two different income groups in the pooled data set are also subject to stability testing. The energy price sensitivity in residential energy consumption is found to be higher for high-income households than for low-income households.     

Measuring the environmental load of household consumption using some methods based on input–output energy analysis: A comparison of methods and a discussion of results

A proper analysis (an evaluation) of the environmental load of consumption is important in the context of sustainable development. Presently, different methods are used to calculate the environmental load of household consumption, mainly in energy and or greenhouse gas emission terms. These methods are all based on input–output energy analysis, but use different data sources and produce different results. In this article, we discern and describe three methods used to calculate the total energy requirements of households, and we discuss the main results produced with these methods. All three methods are applied to the Netherlands in order to compare differences and similarities in the results. We found that the total energy requirement calculated with all three methods was almost the same, with differences less than 4%, however each method provides results at a different level. Basic energy input–output analysis generates total requirements and requirements per consumption category, and is therefore suitable for describing and explaining the effect of household consumption. The hybrid method combining energy input–output analysis with process analysis generates requirements per consumption item and therefore offers opportunities to search for options of change of household consumption patterns to more sustainable consumption.     

Towards green rural energy in Yunnan, China

Yunnan is one of the less developed provinces in China, but has abundant energy resources, and is an ideal destination for tourists around the world due to its perfect climate and unique sightseeing resorts. However, energy consumption in rural households relies mainly on straw (12.15%), firewood (41%), and coal (38.5%). This pattern of energy consumption has been imposing pressure on the environment, water resources and soil in recent years with the rapid growth of Yunnan’s economy. This paper reports the achievements in Yunnan’s rural energy development in the past two decades. Issues of the greatest concern and interest, which are unfavorable for further development of rural energy, have been identified, and a new proposal of developing green rural energy in Yunnan is suggested based on its economy and resource conditions. The proposal addresses the development of biogas, small hydropower and solar energy, which are abundant in Yunnan. It is estimated that the new program will annually bring direct benefits of about 5 billion yuan to farmers by 2010, and the indirect benefits, such as those from tourism due to the improvement of the environment resulting from the use of green rural energy, will be enormous. It is believed that the program will speed up rural economic growth through the integrated utilization of rural energy.     

Determinants of household energy consumption in India

Improving access to affordable modern energy is critical to improving living standards in the developing world. Rural households in India, in particular, are almost entirely reliant on traditional biomass for their basic cooking energy needs. This has adverse effects on their health and productivity, and also causes environmental degradation. This study presents a new generic modelling approach, with a focus on cooking fuel choices, and explores response strategies for energy poverty eradication in India. The modelling approach analyzes the determinants of fuel consumption choices for heterogeneous household groups, incorporating the effect of income distributions and traditionally more intangible factors such as preferences and private discount rates. The methodology is used to develop alternate future scenarios that explore how different policy mechanisms such as fuel subsidies and micro-financing can enhance the diffusion of modern, more efficient, energy sources in India.     

Comprehending household cooking energy choice in rural India

Energy is essential to attain the quality of life and economic prosperity in a society. In the rural areas of India, cooking dominates the aggregate consumption of energy. This energy demand is mostly met by biomass fuels, which have many associated inherent disadvantages. Hence, it is important to understand the decision making process in rural households regarding the choice of cooking fuels. For this purpose, household information using the 61st round of National Sample Survey is analyzed for the rural parts of India. The logistic regression model is used to explain the determinants of clean fuel use for cooking purposes. The study shows that number of educated females between 10 and 50 years of age, average household education index, regular salary, and monthly per capita consumption expenditure have a positive and significant impact on probability of using clean cooking fuels, whereas possessing a Below Poverty Line ration card, belonging to reserved caste categories, family size and size of farm land have a significant negative linkage.     

A review of computer tools for analysing the integration of renewable energy into various energy systems

This paper includes a review of the different computer tools that can be used to analyse the integration of renewable energy. Initially 68 tools were considered, but 37 were included in the final analysis which was carried out in collaboration with the tool developers or recommended points of contact. The results in this paper provide the information necessary to identify a suitable energy tool for analysing the integration of renewable energy into various energy-systems under different objectives. It is evident from this paper that there is no energy tool that addresses all issues related to integrating renewable energy, but instead the ‘ideal’ energy tool is highly dependent on the specific objectives that must be fulfilled. The typical applications for the 37 tools reviewed (from analysing single-building systems to national energy-systems), combined with numerous other factors such as the energy-sectors considered, technologies accounted for, time parameters used, tool availability, and previous studies, will alter the perception of the ‘ideal’ energy tool. In conclusion, this paper provides the information necessary to direct the decision-maker towards a suitable energy tool for an analysis that must be completed.