Vulnerability of smallholder rural households to food insecurity in Eastern Ethiopia

Although several empirical methodologies as to how best assess vulnerability to food insecurity have been proposed in the literature, none of these has evolved into a unanimously accepted approach. This article contributes to this literature by adapting the Vulnerability as Expected Poverty approach from poverty analysis methodology with the aim of scrutinizing factors determining household level vulnerability to food insecurity based on cross-section data collected from 277 randomly selected households in eastern Ethiopia. Vulnerability to food insecurity was strongly associated with several factors which included family size, size of cultivated landholding, soil fertility status of plots, access to irrigation, number of extension visits, use of fertilizer and improved seed. The probability that any given household??s food consumption expenditure would fall below a specified cut-off level has also been computed and vulnerable households identified. The total number of vulnerable households (111) was found to be greater than those who are currently food insecure (103). This implies that design and implementation of food security policies and strategies need to focus not only on those who are observed to be currently food insecure, but also on setting up social protection mechanisms to help prevent households from falling more deeply into food insecurity in the future.     

Are the World Food Programme’s food consumption groups a good proxy for energy deficiency?

The Food Consumption Score (FCS) is the World Food Programme’s main food access indicator, a proxy for household diet quantity and quality. The score is based on the number of days in a week eight food groups were eaten, and thresholds classify households as having poor, borderline or acceptable food consumption. The ability of the FCS and its thresholds to classify household’s consumption consistently are vital as food assistance is directed towards areas and population groups where prevalence of inadequate food consumption is high. As there are indications that the current thresholds underestimate inadequate consumption, this paper asks whether FCS thresholds can be identified corresponding to inadequate energy consumption, the quantity dimension of the score. The analysis uses household survey data that include comprehensive modules on food consumption as well as the information necessary to calculate the FCS from six countries. The results show that the FCS is significantly but not highly correlated with calorie intake. Not counting foods eaten in small quantities, clearly improves the association between the FCS and caloric intake, but the analysis suggests that in practice it is difficult to exclude the small quantities. Established sensitivity and specificity criteria for suitable thresholds are not met and this paper concludes that it is not appropriate to identify FCS thresholds that adequately correspond to caloric thresholds. The analysis illustrates that the FCS depicts both quantitative and qualitative aspects of food consumption and concludes that a future strategy should be to anchor thresholds in an indicator comprising both these dimensions.     

The effect of climbing bean adoption on the welfare of smallholder common bean growers in Rwanda

This paper assessed the effect of climbing bean adoption on the welfare of the bean growers in Rwanda, using four indicators: per capita consumption expenditure, poverty head count, quantity of bean consumed per person and food security. The analysis was based on cross sectional data from a nationally representative survey of bean growers, conducted in 2011. Instrumental variables and control function approaches were used to address the endogeneity of climbing bean adoption decisions in household welfare outcomes. Results demonstrated that investments in climbing bean research and dissemination efforts contributed significantly to improve household welfare. One additional kilogram of climbing bean seed planted raises per capita consumption expenditure by 0.9% and that of bean consumption by 2.8%, and increases the probability that a household is food secure by 0.6% while decreasing the likelihood of being poor by 0.6%. These findings highlight the important role climbing bean adoption can play in reducing food insecurity and poverty in land constrained areas.     

The impact of the homestead food garden programme on food security in South Africa

The South African government has implemented homestead food garden (HFG) programmes directed at enhancing food production in order to reduce food insecurity, malnutrition, poverty and hunger. The present paper evaluated the impact of this programme on household food insecurity using surveys of 500 households. Endogenous switching regression, propensity score matching and household food insecurity average scores were employed in our analysis. Our findings demonstrated that participation in an HFG programme could significantly enhance the food security status of participants by increasing household food supply and consumption as well as by income derived from selling any excess production from the garden. Specifically, our empirical findings showed that participation in the HFG programme significantly reduced food insecurity among rural households by as much as 41.5%. Therefore, we recommend that policy makers should encourage more rural households to participate in the programme in order to reduce their food insecurity. Facilitating easy access to credit, extension services, fertilizer, irrigation facilities and land are policy options needed to promote farmers participation in HFG programmes. Furthermore, the formation of farmer-based organizations and the building of positive perceptions about HFGs are some of the key policy options that can be employed to improve households’ participation in the programme. Promotion of education, participating in off-farm activities, access to market, irrigation, extension and credit, and adoption of fertiliser are some policy interventions that can reduce food insecurity among rural house holds whether or not they participate in the HFG programme.     

Impact of improved maize adoption on household food security of maize producing smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

In recent years, maize has gained prominence as an important staple crop in Ethiopia second only to teff in terms of acreage. Most of this is grown by semi-subsistence farm households whose livelihoods are tied to crop production and some livestock keeping. Therefore, an important policy question concerns the impact that the reported maize revolution has had on household food security. This paper answers that question by examining the empirical regularities that explain the adoption of improved maize varieties (IMVs) and how this has impacted household food security in a sample of 2327 maize producing households in 39 districts of Ethiopia. An endogenous switching regression model supported by the dose-response continuous treatment effect method was used to empirically assess the impact of IMV adoption on per capita food consumption expenditure and perceived household food security status. Results show that IMV adoption has a robust and positive impact on per capita food consumption and also significantly increases the probability of a smallholder being in food surplus. The advances in the adoption of improved maize has thus contributed significantly to the food security of maize producing smallholders, confirming the role of crop improvement in contributing to food security of agrarian households.     

Food insecurity in urban poor households in Mumbai, India

India ranks 66th of 88 countries in the Global Hunger Index and has a quarter of the world??s hungry. Food security status of 377 million inhabitants of India??s urban areas, of which one-fourth live in extreme poverty, is poorly documented. The purpose of this study was to determine (a) the extent of food insecurity among households in urban slums, (b) to quantitatively assess their subjective experiences related to food insecurity and (c) to identify sub-groups among the urban poor that are vulnerable to food insecurity. A cross-sectional, interviewer-administered survey of adult female respondents from 283 households, selected using two-stage cluster sampling, was conducted in slums across three municipal wards in the city of Mumbai. Food insecurity, as measured by the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), was found in a large number of households in the urban slums of Mumbai; 59.7?% (n?=?169) households were categorized as severely food-insecure, 16.6?% (n?=?47) as mildly to moderately food-insecure, and 23.7?% (n?=?67) as food-secure. Further analysis revealed that severe food insecurity was significantly associated with lower monthly household income and other socioeconomic status measures such as lower household monthly per capita income, lower rank in the standard of living index (SLI) and less monthly per capita expense on food items. Households where the woman was the primary income-earner and contributed the largest share to the monthly household income, and was older, less educated, with less media use or access were more likely to experience severe food insecurity. Although corrective steps at the household level such as livelihood security schemes and income generation programs are necessary, they will not be sufficient to eliminate this problem; state intervention is required in order to assure food security for the urban poor. The Government of India has drafted a Food Security Bill; but the criteria for determining which households are vulnerable and deserving are still being debated. The findings of this study highlight the urgency of corrective action and also provide pointers for the identification of vulnerable or priority sub-groups. Food security policies and programs have to be implemented immediately and effectively in order to ensure that subsidies and food items are allocated to the households of the vulnerable urban poor.     

The era of sustainable agricultural development in Africa: Understanding the benefits and constraints

Sustainable agriculture has the potential to address some of the fundamental challenges facing agricultural practices in Africa especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The agriculture sector plays an important role as the engine of economic growth in SSA. In this article, we ask the following key question: Can sustainable agriculture save Africa from poverty and food insecurity? To address this fundamental question, we examine and critique evidence of the benefits and challenges associated with the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices in Africa. Improving agricultural sustainability is fundamental to food security and poverty reduction, particularly in achieving elements of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) by 2030, but it will not solve all these problems alone. In consort, African governments and the international community must increase their efforts in tackling problems such as conflicts, civil war, political instability, and disease. Therefore, agricultural policy at the national, regional, and local levels and institutional reforms must be designed to benefit food security, poverty reduction, and income growth at the household level.     

“Modeling the impact of natural resource-based poverty traps on food security in Kenya: The Crops, Livestock and Soils in Smallholder Economic Systems (CLASSES) model”

We investigate the interactions between natural resource-based poverty traps and food security for smallholder farms in highland Kenya using a recently developed system dynamics bio-economic model. This approach permits examination of the complex interactions and feedback between farm household economic decision-making and long-term soil fertility dynamics that characterize persistent poverty and food insecurity among smallholders in rural highland Kenya. We examine the effects of changing initial endowments of land and stocks of soil organic matter on smallholders?? well being, as reflected in several different indicators. We show that larger and higher quality land endowments permit accumulation of cash and livestock resources and conservation of soil organic matter relative to smaller or more degraded farms. This suggests the existence of asset thresholds that divide food secure households from food insecure ones.     

Household Food Insecurity and Canadian Aboriginal Women's Self-efficacy in Food Preparation

Purpose: Determinants of self-efficacy related to food preparation using store-bought food were examined in women belonging to the Atikamekw Nation. Also examined was whether self-efficacy was associated with household food insecurity. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 107 women responsible for household food supplies. Two self-efficacy scores were calculated, one for healthy food preparation and one for food preparation in general. Household food insecurity was measured with an adapted version of the United States Food Security Core Module. The other variables were household composition, income sources, food supplies, tobacco use, participants' health status, and lifestyle and sociodemographic characteristics. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze associations between self-efficacy and household food insecurity in 99 participants. Results: Severe household food insecurity was associated with significantly lower healthy food preparation scores in Atikamekw women. Other associated variables were food supplies, marital status, alcohol consumption, weight status, and understanding of the native language. Conclusions: Application of the concept of self-efficacy contributes to a better understanding of the factors influencing food preparation in Atikamekw women. In this study, self-efficacy in healthy food preparation was linked to food insecurity and obesity, particularly in the most serious cases. Efforts to improve diet will require not only behavioural interventions, but public policies.     

Vulnerability in crisis: urban household food insecurity in Epworth,Harare, Zimbabwe

Much of the contemporary literature on food security has focused on the rural sector. However, within the current context of high demographic growth, rapid urbanization and rising urban poverty which characterizes much of Sub-Saharan Africa, urban food insecurity cannot continue to be ignored. This study therefore examines the vulnerability of poor households to food insecurity in the challenging urban environment of Harare in Zimbabwe, an acute example of a city (and country) ‘in crisis’. Findings from qualitative and quantitative research demonstrate severe food insecurity characterized by critical food shortages and the consumption of narrower diets among poor households in the city. Household vulnerability to food insecurity stemmed from a range of factors, including: high levels of unemployment and poverty; high dependency ratios; low levels of house ownership; hyperinflation; skyrocketing food prices; and the general collapse of the formal food system. Vulnerability to food insecurity was further exacerbated by a prolonged adverse socio-political climate that undermined national economic recovery and reduced the livelihood opportunities available to the urban poor. The paper concludes that in Harare, as in most urban areas of the developing world, the urban poor have become highly vulnerable to food insecurity.     

The effect of education on household food security in two informal urban settlements in Kenya: a longitudinal analysis

Poverty and food insecurity continue to feature prominently in the global agenda, with particularly close attention being paid to the determinants of food insecurity. However, the effect of education is mixed and remains understudied in low income countries. Using longitudinal data collected between 2007 and 2012 in Kenya, we investigated the effect of household education attainment on food security among poor urban households. Household food security was constructed from a set of four key items while education was the average years of schooling for individuals aged 18 years and above in a household. To determine the association between education attainment and food security, we fitted a random effects generalised ordered probit model. The prevalence of severe food insecurity ranged from 49 % in 2008 to 35 % in 2012. The ordered probit results showed a significant effect of education on food security. The probability of being food insecure decreased by 0.019 for a unit increase in the average years of schooling for a given household. The effect of education, remained significant even after controlling for household wealth index, a more proximate determinant of food security in a cash-based economy such as the urban slums. The findings highlight the need to focus on the food security status of the urban poor. Specifically, results suggest the need for programs aimed at reducing food insecurity among the urban poor and enhancing household livelihoods. In addition, investment in the education of the slum households may, in the long term, contribute to reduction in the prevalence of food insecurity.     

The role of livestock diversification in ensuring household food security under a changing climate in Borana,Ethiopia

While food insecurity is a growing concern across the developing nations, accentuated by climate variability and change, it could be even worse for pastoralists given their unpredictable exposure to climate risks. The Borana herders experience food insecurity as a result of recurring droughts causing huge losses of cattle, and are thus increasingly shifting from cattle pastoralism to multi-species herding. The present study examines the role of livestock diversification in combating household food insecurity using herders’ perceptions, a modified household food insecurity access scale (mHFIAS) and dietary diversity score. Herders perceived child growth, adult height and body condition to be decreasing as a result of declining milk production and changing dietary trends. Results also revealed a high level of seasonal food insecurity and low dietary diversity with the majority (81 %) consuming one to three food groups. Livestock diversification was a major factor affecting household food security. Households practising diversification had significantly fewer months of food deficit (2.3 vs. 3.8), lower mHFIAS (5.5 vs. 8.7) and a higher average off-take in the form of livestock sales (7.4 vs. 4.0) than non-diversified ones. Diversification improved dietary intake of specific food groups and the average number of meals consumed per day. While fruits, eggs and fish are not part of the Borana diet, a large number of respondents consumed no vegetables (93 %) or meat (96 %), potentiating the risk of micronutrient deficiencies. This study highlights the particular significance of livestock diversification, among other socio-demographic factors, in attaining food security under a changing climate in the study area.     

我国贫困地区动物性食物消费研究——基于西部农村的调查分析

中国贫困地区人口食物安全问题引起人们广泛的关注。本文对西部3省138户农户实地调查,结果发现农户食物安全存在动物性食物消费量低等问题;分析表明,收入、教育程度、劳动力比率和是否饲养肉类牲畜对家庭动物性食物消费有显著的影响。最后提出了贫困地区农村家庭食物营养改善的政策性建议,如口粮援助、开发地方资源和加强食物安全方面的综合扶贫措施等。     

Mopane worm (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Imbrasia belina</Emphasis>) and rural household food security in Limpopo province,South Africa

Rural households in South Africa are vulnerable to food and income adversity. As a result, they adopt a range of livelihoods strategies, including consumption and trade of woodland resources to improve their living standards. Mopane worms (caterpillars of the Emperor Moth Imbrasia belina) have been identified as important to rural livelihoods, as an alternative land-use option as well as in fulfilling an important food security function. Whilst mopane worms may contribute to food security, this safety-net function needs more critical and quantitative investigation. This study examined the relationship between mopane worm consumption and household’s food security in the Limpopo Province, South Africa using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and the Tobit regression model based on a household survey of 120 respondents. The result from HFIAS showed that about 52 % of the households were severely food insecure, while others were either mildly or moderately food insecure. Only 16 % of the households were food secure. The Tobit regression model estimates show that proxy variables (i.e. income from mopane worm trade and the frequency of mopane worm consumption) measuring the contribution of mopane worms to rural household food security are statistically significant factors influencing household food insecurity in the study area. Implications for policy are discussed.     

Impact assessment of push-pull pest management on incomes,productivity and poverty among smallholder households in Eastern Uganda

The paper evaluates the impact of adoption of push-pull technology (PPT) on household welfare in terms of productivity, incomes and poverty status measured through per-capita food consumption in eastern Uganda. Push-pull is a habitat management strategy for the integrated management of stemborers, striga weeds and poor soil fertility involving the use of a natural repellent (push) and an attractant (pull). This biological technology simultaneously reduces the impact of three major production constraints to cereal-livestock farming in Africa ? pests, weeds and poor soil. Cross sectional survey data were collected from 560 households in four districts in the region (Busia, Tororo, Bugiri and Pallisa), in November and December 2014. Generalized propensity scoring (GPS) was used to determine the intensity of adoption of the technology (i.e., land area allocated to PPT) and also to estimate the dose-response function (DRF) relating intensity of adoption and household welfare. Results revealed that with increased intensity of reported adoption of PPT, the probability of being poor declined through increased maize yield per unit area, incomes, and per capita food consumption. However, its impact varied with the intensity of adoption. With an increase in the area allocated to PPT from 0.025 to 1 acre, average maize yield per unit area increased from 27 kg to 1400 kg, average household income increased from 135 US$ (Uganda Shilling (USh) 370,000) to 273 US$ (USh 750,000) and per capita food consumption increased from 15 US$ (USh 40,000) to 27 US$ (USh 75,000). The average probability of a household being poor (below a rural poverty line of US$ 12.71) declined from 48% to 28%. These findings imply that increased investment in the dissemination and expansion of PPT is essential for poverty reduction among smallholder farmers in Uganda.     

Sustainable smallholder poultry interventions to promote food security and social,agricultural, and ecological resilience in the Luangwa Valley,Zambia

In Zambia’s Luangwa Valley, highly variable rainfall and lack of education, agricultural inputs, and market access constrain agricultural productivity, trapping smallholder farmers in chronic poverty and food insecurity. Human and animal disease (e.g. HIV and Newcastle Disease, respectively), further threaten the resilience of poor families. To cope with various shocks and stressors, many farmers employ short-term coping strategies that threaten ecosystem resilience. Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO) utilizes an agribusiness model to alleviate poverty and food insecurity through conservation farming, market development and value-added food production. COMACO promotes household, agricultural and ecological resilience along two strategic lines: improving recovery from shocks (mitigation) and reducing the risk of shock occurrence. Here we focus on two of COMACO’s poultry interventions and present data showing that addressing health and management constraints within the existing village poultry system resulted in significantly improved productivity and profitability. However, once reliable productivity was achieved, farmers preferred to sell chickens rather than eat either the birds or their eggs. Sales of live birds were largely outside the community to avoid price suppression; in contrast, the sale of eggs from community-operated, semi-intensive egg production facilities was invariably within the communities. These facilities resulted in significant increases in both producer income and community consumption of eggs. This intervention therefore has the potential to improve not only producers’ economic resilience, but also resilience tied to the food security and physical health of the entire community.     

Structure and properties of urban household food demand in Nairobi,Kenya: implications for urban food security

Urban household food insecurity continues to be a major problem in many urban households of Sub-Saharan Africa. The ineffectiveness of policies addressing the problem has hinged in particular on the paucity of information about consumption patterns under changing economic conditions. Elasticities of food demand were estimated through the Linear Approximated Almost Ideal Demand System (LA/AIDS) and inferences about access to food were drawn. Shifts in consumption were evident when changes occurred in income, prices and household demography. As the urban poor are sensitive to variation in food prices and income, they should be cushioned against their negative effects in order for their access to food to be enhanced and hence their food security improved. Dairy and dairy products and wheat and wheat products were identified as subsidy carriers which would improve the nutrition of the urban poor. These results provide guidance for the design of food security and nutrition strategies and programs at the micro and macro-economic levels.     

Nutritional impacts of rising food prices in African countries: a review

This paper investigates the influences of food price spikes on nutritional outcomes in six African countries: DR Congo, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda. Drawing on the estimates of food demand elasticity with respect to food prices in previous studies, we constructed the elasticity of calorie and protein consumption with respect to food prices. We find that, while increasing cereal prices has the largest negative influences on both calorie and protein consumption in all the countries, the magnitude of the influences may differ by regions and the country’s dietary patterns. The negative influences are particularly large in rural areas and in the countries whose diets highly depend on a single staple cereal while small in the countries whose diets have alternative staple foods. Our findings highlight the importance of stabilizing cereal prices to reduce calorie deficiency while it may not be enough to improve protein deficiency.     

You are not alone: social capital and risk exposure in rural Ethiopia

This paper examines the impact of shocks on food security and the insurance role of social capital and informal social networks. In particular, by combining household panel data, weather data, self-reported shocks and detailed social capital information, the paper investigates the insurance role of social capital against covariate and idiosyncratic shocks. Our results suggest that both covariate and idiosyncratic shocks increase the prevalence of food insecurity. However, households with a higher stock of social capital were able to smooth consumption. We also found that food consumption is not insured through social capital when a shock affects the whole risk-sharing network. Moreover, we show that formal policy interventions such as access to consumption credit and safety nets are the only effective ways of insuring food consumption when a shock affects the entire risk-sharing network.