Risk mechanisms in development: Some conceptual and methodological considerations.

This commentary focuses on several issues concerning research on risk mechanisms that are raised in this special issue. First, we focus on what marks this special issue as distinctive in the ways in which risk research is conducted. Second, several general issues in research are highlighted, including sample characteristics, measurement strategies, specificity of risk factors and risk mechanisms, categorical vs. dimensional approaches to samples and measures, and definitions of development and transitions. Third, the challenges for integrating alternative models of risk are discussed, with special references to research on genetic and environmental influences on developmental psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structures of personality and their relevance to psychopathology.

Trait concepts are used extensively in psychopathology research, but much of this research has failed to consider recent advances in the dimensional structure of personality. Many investigators have discounted the importance of this structural research, arguing that (1) little progress has been made in this area, (2) structural models have little direct relevance for psychopathology research, and (3) the principal methodological tool of structural research, factor analysis, is too subjective to yield psychologically meaningful results. The authors dispute each of these objections. Specifically, an integrative hierarchical model is offered, composed of 4 higher order traits, which is congruent with each of the major structural subtraditions within personality. The implications of this integrative scheme for basic trait research, for the conceptualization and assessment of psychopathology, and for the etiology of disorder are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of a family caregiving model to articulate the role of the public health nurse in infant mental health promotion

Current categorical classifications of the personality disorders are based on psychological perspectives. Consequently, biological research using these models has been unsuccessful since the nosological categories do not come out from the psychobiological systems underlying personality psychopathology. By contrast, biological research on dimensional models of personality has been more useful. All dimensional models agree on a neurotic-inhibitory dimension and an exploratory dimension of personality but they differ on other primary traits like dependence, emotionality or impulsiveness. However, gathering together all biological data support the existence of five biological axes of personality: a cognitive axis, a mood axis, an anxious-inhibitory axis, an exploratory axis and a action-control axis. CONCLUSION: Considering these biological axes is bringing a new perspective on the classification of personality disorder and gives way to new pharmacological therapeutic options.     

Psychopathology of childhood: Research problems and issues.

Argues that research on child psychopathology would benefit from reducing the influence of adult treatment models and from applying a developmental perspective to clinical research on children. Specific methodological problems are discussed, including the assessment of S characteristics; the use of replicable and generalizable diagnostic classifications; the effects of situational specificity and developmental variance on measures of children's behavior; the need to avoid pathological biases in judging children; relationships among correlation, causation, and prediction in a developmental context; problems in measuring change; and the effects of age, cohort, and time of measurement, as well as fallacies in drawing longitudinal conclusions from cross-sectional data. Research needs are also identified, including the need to devise and use well-standardized measures; the need to evaluate interactions between S and treatment variables in outcome research; the need for long-term follow-ups of children identified as being at risk; the need for cumulative programmatic research; and the need to link research more closely to service systems. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to the Special Section: Toward a Dimensionally Based Taxonomy of Psychopathology.

Much current psychopathology research is framed by categorical constructs. Limitations of categorical constructs have been articulated, and dimensional constructs are often proposed as viable alternatives to categories of psychopathology. The purpose of this Special Section is to articulate and discuss diverse issues that arise in contemplating dimensional constructs as targets for psychopathology research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Whether obesity should be treated.

Antidieting sentiment is strengthened in part by the assumption that all diets fail, which in turn is based on data from university-based treatment programs. A small percentage of overweight people attempt to lose weight in these programs, and they differ in important ways from overweight people in general. They are heavier, more likely to be binge eaters, and have higher levels of psychopathology, all negative prognostic factors for treatment. Generalizing from the treatment of this group to all programs is highly questionable. Hence, little is known about the effectiveness of approaches used by most people. There is a pressing need for research on this topic, and a need for treatments that address the specific needs of those who seek clinical treatments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Co-occurrence of depressive symptoms and antisocial behavior in adolescence: A common genetic liability.

Recent reviews of research on child and adolescent psychopathology have highlighted the consistently high rates of co-occurring dimensions of psychopathology, particularly between internalizing and externalizing disorders, and have suggested that further research examining the causes of co-occurring syndromes is needed. The authors examined this question in a national sample of 720 same-sex adolescent siblings between 10 and 18 years of age consisting of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, full siblings, half siblings, and unrelated siblings. Composite measures of adolescent and parent reports and observational measures of depressive symptoms and antisocial behavior were subjected to behavioral genetic models that examine the genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in each dimension as well as in the co-occurrence between dimensions. Results indicated that approximately half of the variability in depressive symptoms and antisocial behavior is attributed to genetic factors; shared and nonshared environmental influences were also significant. The co-occurrence of depressive and antisocial symptoms was explained by genetic and shared and nonshared environmental influences. Specifically, approximately 45% of the observed covariation between depressive and antisocial symptoms could be explained by a common genetic liability. Results are interpreted in light of contribution of genetic studies to debates on child and adolescent psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol Expectancy Multiaxial Assessment: A Memory Network-Based Approach.

Despite several decades of activity, alcohol expectancy research has yet to merge measurement approaches with developing memory theory. This article offers an expectancy assessment approach built on a conceptualization of expectancy as an information processing network. The authors began with multidimensional scaling models of expectancy space, which served as heuristics to suggest confirmatory factor analytic dimensional models for entry into covariance structure predictive models. It is argued that this approach permits a relatively thorough assessment of the broad range of potential expectancy dimensions in a format that is very flexible in terms of instrument length and specificity versus breadth of focus. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commentary on Krueger and Eaton's “Personality traits and the classification of mental disorders: Toward a more complete integration in DSM-5 and an empirical model of psychopathology”: Real-world considerations in implementing an empirically based dimensional model of personality in DSM-5.

Comments on the original article Personality traits and the classification of mental Disorders: Toward a more complete integration in DSM–5 and an empirical model of psychopathology by Robert F. Krueger and Nicholas R. Eaton (see record 2010-13810-003). In their article, Krueger and Eaton (pp. 97–118, this issue) advocate for a “more complete and extensive integration of personality traits in future DSMs [Diagnostic and Statistical Manuals of Mental Disorders], via the explicit inclusion of an empirically based, dimensional personality trait model” (p. 97) and review the “diverse ways in which the inclusion of an empirically based personality trait model could constitute a critical innovation in the transition from DSM–IV to DSM-5” (p. 113). Krueger and Eaton’s proposal that (DSM-5) adopt a dimensional personality trait approach exemplifies the difficulties of devising a classification scheme that satisfies the needs of the both the clinical and research communities. In this instance, the challenge is adapting a complex dimensional trait scheme developed and utilized almost exclusively by the research community, for clinical use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On categorical diagnoses in DSM-V: Cutting dimensions at useful points?

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM–V) will likely place more emphasis on dimensional representation of mental disorders. However, it is often argued that categorical diagnoses are preferable for professional communication, clinical decision-making, or distinguishing between individuals with and without a mental disorder. For these specific aims, utility-based categories can be created on the basis of a dimensional framework by using cut-points. This article addresses several ideas for combining categorical and dimensional approaches like prototype matching, adding scores of symptom-severity, and introducing utility-based categories in dimensional models. The authors identify alternative objectives for specifying cut-points and describe ways of determining the cut-points accordingly. It is recommended that, for creating standard diagnostic concepts, fixed cutoffs be used, as this promotes accumulative science, but these cutoffs may not be optimal for other clinical decisions because of local base rates and decision-specific (dis)utilities. Receiver operator characteristics curves can facilitate the comparative evaluation of the trade-off between sensitivity and specificity for multiple cut-points and diagnostic rules. The authors advocate a DSM–V that contains both categories and dimensions to serve the multiple and complex aims of utility and validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparing factor structures of adolescent psychopathology.

Research on the structure of adolescent psychopathology can provide information on broad factors that underlie different forms of maladjustment in youths. Multiple studies from the literature on adult populations suggest that 2 factors, Internalizing and Externalizing, meaningfully comprise the factor structure of adult psychopathology (e.g., Krueger, 1999) and presumably represent broad vulnerability for co-occurring disorders. Though this research was partially inspired by early work with children and adolescents (e.g., Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1984), the role of substance use in these models of youth psychopathology has not been fully explored. Toward this goal, we recruited 223 youths (10–17 years of age, M = 14.2) from mental health agencies and the community. We found evidence for a 3-factor model of youth psychopathology, including Internalizing (depression, generalized anxiety), Externalizing (conduct disorder, attention deficit, oppositional defiant disorder), and Substance Use (alcohol and cannabis). The 3-factor model showed the best fit to the data relative to other factor models tested, including across subsamples of adolescents who differed on level of psychopathology (treatment vs. community samples). Implications for the structure of adolescent psychopathology, including important developmental considerations, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between normal variation in IQ and common childhood psychopathology: a clinical study

The relationship between normal variation in IQ and common psychopathology was examined in a sample of 339 5- to 16-year-olds who were seen at a tertiary psychiatric clinic. The mean IQ was 9.6 points lower (95% CI 5.5 to 13.6 points lower) for conduct than for emotional disorders, with mixed disorders in between. For these common disorders, the mean IQ was 6.0 points lower (95% CI 1.6 to 10.3 points lower) for females than males. IQ variation in the normal range was inversely related to a dimensional measure of conduct problems - an association that was not attributable to social class or mediated by scholastic attainments. Other dimensional measures of psychopathology - covering emotional symptoms, developmental immaturity and relationship difficulties - were not significantly correlated with IQ. Limitations of the study are discussed in the paper.     

The psychology of ongoing threat: Relative risk appraisal, the September 11 attacks, and terrorism-related fears.

There are now replicated findings that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms related to the September 11, 2001, attacks occurred in large numbers of persons who did not fit the traditional definition of exposure to a traumatic event. These data are not explained by traditional epidemiologic "bull's eye" disaster models, which assume the psychological effects are narrowly, geographically circumscribed, or by existing models of PTSD onset. In this article, the authors develop a researchable model to explain these and other terrorism-related phenomena by synthesizing research and concepts from the cognitive science, risk appraisal, traumatic stress, and anxiety disorders literatures. They propose the new term relative risk appraisal to capture the psychological function that is the missing link between the event and subjective response in these and other terrorism-related studies to date. Relative risk appraisal highlights the core notion from cognitive science that human perception is an active, multidimensional process, such that for unpredictable societal threats, proximity to the event is only one of several factors that influence behavioral responses. Addressing distortions in relative risk appraisal effectively could reduce individual and societal vulnerability to a wide range of adverse economic and ethnopolitical consequences to terrorist attacks. The authors present ways in which these concepts and related techniques can be helpful in treating persons with September 11- or terrorism-related distress or psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to the special section on adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse.

Sexual abuse researchers need to use more complex models of abuse and more sophisticated research designs for studying long-term effects and for evaluating treatment programs. The articles that comprise this special section integrate the study of sexual abuse with perspectives on adult victimization, developmental psychopathology, and attachment theory and also offer specific methodological suggestions for improving research on long-term effects and therapy with the abuse survivor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of sociotropy/autonomy and dependency/self-criticism to DSM-III—R personality disorders.

Relationships between A. T. Beck's (1983) constructs of sociotropy/autonomy and S. J. Blatt's (see record 1976-12367-001) constructs of dependency/self-criticism and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-III (DSM-III) Axis II personality disorders were examined. Two measures of personality styles and a structured diagnostic interview for personality disorders were administered to 138 outpatients. Significant relationships were found between both sets of constructs and a number of personality disorders using both categorical and dimensional measures of Axis II psychopathology. These relationships were consistent with previous theory, supporting recent conceptualizations extending the range of psychopathology associated with these personality styles from depression to the personality disorders. However, the autonomy/self-criticism dimension was correlated with a broader range of personality disorder traits and diagnoses than anticipated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bridging the gap with the five-factor model.

Comments on the original article Personality traits and the classification of mental Disorders: Toward a more complete integration in DSM–5 and an empirical model of psychopathology by Robert F. Krueger and Nicholas R. Eaton (see record 2010-13810-003). Some researchers had hoped the forthcoming Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) would ask psychiatrists (and the clinical psychologists and researchers who are also tied to the DSM) to leap the gap and embrace a trait-based taxonomy of personality pathology (Widiger & Trull, 2007). Krueger and Eaton (pp. 97–118, this issue) take a more pragmatic stance: They hope to coax psychiatrists across by introducing personality dimensions as an adjunct to familiar PD types; they envision that DSM-5 might serve “as a bridge” (p. 110, this issue) to a fully dimensional Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Sixth Edition (DSM-6). We acknowledge the wisdom of this strategy and suggest ways to strengthen it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using Taxometric Analysis to Distinguish a Small Latent Taxon From a Latent Dimension With Positively Skewed Indicators: The Case of Involuntary Defeat Syndrome.

Joining the debate on the structure of depression, S. R. H. Bearh and N. Amir (2003) analyzed college students' responses to 6 Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) items with predominantly somatic content and concluded that they identified a small latent taxon corresponding to involuntary defeat syndrome. An exact replication of these analyses yielded virtually identical taxometric results, but parallel analyses of simulated taxonic and dimensional comparison data matching the intercorrelations and skewed distributions of the BDI items showed the results to be more consistent with dimensional than with taxonic latent structure. Analyses in a clinical sample with nonskewed indicators further supported a dimensional interpretation. The authors discuss methodological strategies for conducting and interpreting taxometric analyses under the adverse conditions commonly encountered in psychopathology research, including skewed indicators and small putative taxa. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)