Barriers in the selection of offshore software development outsourcing vendors: An exploratory study using a systematic literature review

Context

Software development outsourcing is a contract-based relationship between client and vendor organisations in which a client contracts out all or part of its software development activities to a vendor, who provides agreed services for remuneration.

Objective

The objective is to identify various barriers that have a negative impact on software outsourcing clients in the selection process of offshore software development outsourcing vendors.

Method

We have performed a systematic literature review (SLR) process for the identification of barriers. We have performed all the SLR steps such as the protocol development, initial selection, final selection, quality assessment, data extraction and data synthesis.

Results

We have identified barriers such as ‘language and cultural barriers’, ‘country instability’, ‘lack of project management’, ‘lack of protection for intellectual property rights’ and ‘lack of technical capability’ that generally have a negative impact on outsourcing clients. We have identified only one common frequently cited barrier in three types of organisations (i.e. small, medium and large) which is ‘language and cultural barriers’. We did not identify any common frequently cited barrier in three continents (Asia, North America and Europe) and in two decades (1990-1999 and 2000-mid 2008). The results also reveal the similarities and differences in the barriers identified through different study strategies.

Conclusions

Vendors should address frequently cited barriers such as ‘language and cultural barriers’, ‘country instability’, ‘lack of project management’, ‘lack of protection for intellectual property rights’ and ‘lack of technical capability’ in order to compete in the offshore outsourcing business.     

Recursive definitions and fixed-points on well-founded structures

An expression such as ∀x(P(x)↔?(P)), where P occurs in ?(P), does not always define P. When such an expression implicitly definesP, in the sense of Beth (1953) [1] and Padoa (1900) [13], we call it a recursive definition. In the Least Fixed-Point Logic (LFP), we have theories where interesting relations can be recursively defined (Ebbinghaus, 1995 [4], Libkin, 2004 [12]). We will show that for some sorts of recursive definitions there are explicit definitions on sufficiently strong theories of LFP. It is known that LFP, restricted to finite models, does not have Beth’s Definability Theorem (Gurevich, 1996 [7], Hodkinson, 1993 [8], Dawar, 1995 [3]). Beth’s Definability Theorem states that, if a relation is implicitly defined, then there is an explicit definition for it. We will also give a proof that Beth’s Definability Theorem fails for LFP without this finite model restriction. We will investigate fragments of LFP for which Beth’s Definability Theorem holds, specifically theories whose models are well-founded structures.     

Scheme-based theorem discovery and concept invention

We describe an approach to automatically invent/explore new mathematical theories, with the goal of producing results comparable to those produced by humans, as represented, for example, in the libraries of the Isabelle proof assistant. Our approach is based on ‘schemes’, which are formulae in higher-order logic. We show that it is possible to automate the instantiation process of schemes to generate conjectures and definitions. We also show how the new definitions and the lemmata discovered during the exploration of a theory can be used, not only to help with the proof obligations during the exploration, but also to reduce redundancies inherent in most theory-formation systems. We exploit associative-commutative (AC) operators using ordered rewriting to avoid AC variations of the same instantiation. We implemented our ideas in an automated tool, called IsaScheme, which employs Knuth-Bendix completion and recent automatic inductive proof tools. We have evaluated our system in a theory of natural numbers and a theory of lists.     

School subject paradigms and teaching practice in lower secondary Swedish schools influenced by ICT and media

This article deals with how school subjects’ paradigms, i.e. the established content of the teaching and the way in which the teaching is traditionally organised, are influenced when digital media are becoming increasingly common in educational contexts. The study is based on interviews in so-called focus groups with teachers of different school subjects in a Swedish lower secondary school about issues concerning how much they use media and ICT in their teaching and how they think this affects the content of their subject, relations in the classroom, working methods and the role of the teacher. The theoretical point of departure is Basil Bernstein’s concepts of ‘recontextualisation’, ‘framing’, ‘classification’, and ‘the sacred and the profane’. The study shows that the teachers in the lower secondary school where the investigation was conducted use so-called new media to a relatively limited extent but that they are ready to develop their use if resources are made available. They also think that the content, working methods, relations and the role of the teacher are changing, usually for the better. Drawing on Durkheim’s concepts of ‘the sacred’ and ‘the profane’ it appears in this study that the sacred in schools is often associated with the physical and practical.     

A study of the relationships among learning styles, participation types, and performance in programming language learning supported by online forums

This study is focused on the relationships among learning styles, participation types, and learning performance for programming language learning supported by an online forum. Kolb’s learning style inventory was used in this study to determine a learner’s learning type: ‘Diverger’, ‘Assimilator’, ‘Converger’, and ‘Accommodator’. Social Learning Theory was also used to define four participation types. These types in turn were used to describe the learning associated with the use of online forums: ‘Replier’, ‘Asker’, ‘Watcher’, and ‘No activity’.A total of 144 students participated in this experiment as part of a half semester ASP.NET programming language learning courses. The course contained an online forum for supporting the students’ social activities and participation. In this study, ‘learning score’ and ‘satisfaction’ were used to measure learning performance.The results of this study were the following: (1) different learning styles were associated with significantly different learning scores and that the ‘Accommodator’ style was associated with superior learning scores; (2) participation types were also associated with significantly different learning scores and that the ‘Replier’ type is associated with superior learning scores; (3) learning satisfaction is not significantly different among the different learning styles or different participation types, but the average is significantly higher than average values (3.5) of 7-point Likert scale; (4) there is no significant association between learning styles and participation types. Explanations and discussions of these results are offered.Based on the results of this study, we propose that programming language learning, supported with online forums and students’ active participation, increases learning performance as measured by student learning scores.     

Understanding customers' holistic perception of switches in automotive human-machine interfaces

For successful new product development, it is necessary to understand the customers' holistic experience of the product beyond traditional task completion, and acceptance measures. This paper describes research in which ninety-eight UK owners of luxury saloons assessed the feel of push-switches in five luxury saloon cars both in context (in-car) and out of context (on a bench). A combination of hedonic data (i.e. a measure of ‘liking’), qualitative data and semantic differential data was collected. It was found that customers are clearly able to differentiate between switches based on the degree of liking for the samples' perceived haptic qualities, and that the assessment environment had a statistically significant effect, but that it was not universal. A factor analysis has shown that perceived characteristics of switch haptics can be explained by three independent factors defined as ‘Image’, ‘Build Quality’, and ‘Clickiness’. Preliminary steps have also been taken towards identifying whether existing theoretical frameworks for user experience may be applicable to automotive human-machine interfaces.     

Construction industry offsite production: A virtual reality interactive training environment prototype

The ‘traditional’ construction industry has constantly been challenged to improve its inherent problematic practices. Offsite production (OSP), under the umbrella of modern methods of construction (MMC), has been acknowledged as a means to help improve construction industry performance as well as meet new market demands through the provision of improved, adaptable, and sustainable buildings. However, the deployment of OSP systems, if not managed properly, may adversely affect the end result and be counterproductive. It is therefore imperative that the construction industry stakeholders learn and appreciate the specifics, merits, as well as the risks associated with OSP systems in order to achieve the desired outcomes and consequently improve industry performance.On-the-job-training (OJT) is usually sought to facilitate ‘experiential’ learning, which is argued to be particularly effective where a great deal of independence is granted to the task performer. However, OJT has been criticised for being expensive, limited, and sometimes devoid of the actual training context. In order to address the problems encountered with OJT, several virtual reality (VR) solutions have been proposed. This paper introduces one such VR solution prototype, in order to provide a risk-free environment for learning without the ‘do-or-die’ consequences often faced on real construction projects. The proffered solution provides a unique VR environment for practicing new working conditions associated with OSP practices. While the ‘scenes’ of the VR environment take place on a construction site, the environment predominantly targets professionals, such as project managers, construction managers, architects, designers, suppliers and manufacturers, to allow multidisciplinary learning to occur, and hence overcome ‘knowledge silos’ or ‘knowledge compartmentation’. The VR environment enables unforeseen problems often caused by professionals’ decisions, faulty work, and health and safety issues to occur; where the implications of which can be evaluated in respect of time, cost and resources. The VR environment proposed does not aim to resolve problems associated with OSP per se, rather aims to allow ‘things to go wrong’ and consequently allows users not only to ‘experience’ the resulting implications but also to reflect on those implications as part of the learning process. This paper discusses and presents the prototype for the first development phase of the VR interactive training environment. While the prototype was tested and validated with domain experts from industry, the research community, and academia from different EU countries, the data used in developing the prototype was constrained to one project in the UK which may limit the generalisability of results.     

Design with part behaviors: behavior model, representation and applications

A part is primarily characterized by its ‘function(s)’. The function of the part is achieved through its ‘interactions’ with other parts in an assembly under a set of operating conditions. These ‘interactions’ constitute the ‘behavior’ of the part. The ‘part behavior’ is achieved through a set of spatial and design functional relationships between the interacting surfaces of the parts. The set of spatial and design functional relationships for a part constitutes the Part Function Model (PFM) of that part. In this paper, the nature and role of part ‘functions’ and ‘behaviors’ have been studied in the context of a product design system. The paper addresses the following issues: (i) relationship between function, behavior, and geometry of a part; (ii) importance of ‘part behavior’ over ‘part function’, and development of a ‘part behavior’ model; (iii) methodology for transforming the part behaviors into the PFM model of the part; (iv) product model framework for storing the PFM model information with an Object Oriented Programming (OOP) based CAD system (Concentra's Concept Modeller); (v) importance of the PFM model within the product development process; and (vi) application of the PFM model for generating various product specifications of the part. The prototype implementation of a Functional Design System for transforming part behaviors into different types of part specifications has also been presented in this paper.     

Predict on-shelf product availability in grocery retailing with classification methods

Product availability is an important component to maintain consumer satisfaction and secure revenue streams for the retailer and the product supplier. Empirical research suggests that products missing from the shelf, also called ‘out-of-shelf’, is a frequent phenomenon. One of the challenges is to identify products missing from the shelf on a daily base without conducting physical store audit. Through empirical evaluation, this study compares various classification algorithms that can identify ‘out-of-shelf’ products, which is the minority class of product availability. Due to the class imbalance of product availability, an ensemble learning method is used to increase performance of the base classifiers used. The validation results indicate that it is possible to deliver accurate predictions regarding which products are ‘out-of-shelf’ for a selected retail store on a daily base. However, the predictions could not identify a significant number of the products missing from the shelf.     

Analysis on the evolution of the discourse on computer software and programming languages in the light of literary genres and POWER-KNOWLEDGE

Although much analyses have been performed on the collaborative nature of software development in papers (7, 8, 9 and 10) with some of them in the perspective of Vygotsky’s Activity theory, less focus has been given on the discursive evolution of software as different ‘Genres’. In this article we will investigate discursive formation of software and the programming languages in course of time driven by increased ‘Activities’, ‘Dialogue’ and ‘Power’ exercised by certain user groups and entities which will complement our efforts with Activity theory and Foucaultdian POWER-KNOWLEDGE. We will show that POWER relation is affecting user preferences, choices and activities, which are producing changes in the programming languages and creating new software genres. We have borrowed the term ‘Genre’ from the literary studies of Bakhtin and applying it for software. The way different coexisting social classes in a specific time in history leave their fingerprints in different speech and text-genres, we claim that similar mechanisms exist in the software world. We will show that a modern software system is developing improved ‘Dialogism’ or ‘Intertextuality’, ‘Chronotope’ ‘Heteroglossia’ and forming its own discourse. Our presentation is heavily dependent on Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of literary genres and Foucaultdian concept of POWER-KNOWLEDGE.     

A new algebraic model for implementing expert systems represented under the ‘Concept-Attribute-Value’ paradigm

This paper is concerned with expounding a new representation paradigm for modeling expert systems based on computing Groebner Bases. Previous research on Groebner Bases expert systems has so far been connected to modeling expert systems based on propositional logics. Our approach instead is based on the well-known Artificial Intelligence ‘Concept-Attribute-Value’ paradigm for representing knowledge. More precisely, our research is based on translating an already existent expert system described in terms of the ‘Concept-Attribute-Value’ paradigm to a new algebraic model which represents knowledge by means of polynomials. In this way, issues about consistence and inference within this expert system will be, through this new model, transformed into algebraic problems involving calculating Groebner Bases. By using this new model of ours, some interesting advantages ensue: on the one hand, knowledge representation may be performed in a more straightforward and intuitive way; on the other, calculating the Groebner Bases associated to our algebraic model is usually faster adopting this new ‘Concept-Attribute-Value’-based paradigm than it was in previous propositional logic-based expert systems.     

Searching the Web for conflicting topics: Page and user factors

Web users tend to search only the pages displayed at the top of the search engine results page (the ‘top link’ heuristic). Although it might be reasonable to use this heuristic to navigate simple and unambiguous facts, it might be risky when searching for conflicting socio-scientific topics, such as potential measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In the present study, we explored the extent to which students consider other Web page characteristics, such as topic relevance and trustworthiness, when searching and bookmarking pages concerning a conflicting topic. We also examined the extent to which prior background knowledge moderates students’ behavior. The results revealed that while the study participants actually used a ‘top link’ heuristic to navigate the results, they engaged in more systematic processes to bookmark pages for further study. Furthermore, the students’ background knowledge was related to the assessment of Web page trustworthiness. We discuss these results from the perspective of a dual-processing model.     

How students structure and relate argumentative knowledge when learning together with diagrams

When students learn together by discussing a topic, they sometimes are asked to construct an argumentative diagram. An argumentative diagram consists of boxes with arguments and arrows that relate these boxes. Constructing argumentative diagrams can be especially useful for structuring and relating argumentative knowledge. However, students do not always seem to use a diagram’s structure and relations to their benefit. To focus on structure and relations, 46 secondary school students were asked to either label the boxes in a diagram with argumentative labels such as ‘argument in favor’ and ‘rebuttal’, or to label the arrows with more causal labels such as ‘but’, and ‘because’. The students discussed two topics in dyads using a computer environment with chat and diagram. Then a post-test was given to assess their opinion and arguments. We found no difference between conditions in the extent to which students broadened and deepened their discussion. However, students who labeled the arrows contrasted subtopics more. The students who contrasted subtopics more showed better results on the post-test. Instruction and diagram design can thus influence students’ discussion, although the general results also show us that students need more instruction and reflection to optimally benefit from argumentative diagrams.     

Improving multikey Quicksort for sorting strings with many equal elements

Bentley and Sedgewick proposed multikey Quicksort with ‘split-end’ partitioning for sorting strings. But it can be slow in case of many equal elements because it adopted ‘split-end’ partitioning that moves equal elements to the ends and swaps back to the middle. We present ‘collect-center’ partitioning to improve multikey Quicksort in that case. It moves equal elements to the middle directly like the ‘Dutch National Flag Problem’ partitioning approach and it uses two inner loops like Bentley and McIlroy's. In case of many equal elements such as DNA sequences, HTML files, and English texts, multikey Quicksort with ‘collect-center’ partitioning is faster than multikey Quicksort with ‘split-end’ partitioning.     

Training as regulation and development: An exploration of the needs of enterprise systems users

The view of the organization as a system that ‘processes’ information or ‘solves’ problems is at odds with the dynamics of change associated with the development and use of IS in an organization. A significant consequence of this mismatch is in training that does not meet the needs of either the user or management communities, giving rise to sub optimal organization performance and inertia. We explored such issues by examining recent research into organizational development and training. The particular challenges presented in the development and implementation of large-scale enterprise systems were explored to reveal a discontinuity in the constructs underpinning a development. A theoretic model that bridged some of the gaps between the bodies of research was developed and a brief empirical study provided a proof of concept for the model. The paper concludes with a discussion of the model's implications for theory and practice.     

Software architecture awareness in long-term software product evolution

Software architecture has been established in software engineering for almost 40 years. When developing and evolving software products, architecture is expected to be even more relevant compared to contract development. However, the research results seem not to have influenced the development practice around software products very much. The architecture often only exists implicitly in discussions that accompany the development. Nonetheless many of the software products have been used for over 10, or even 20 years. How do development teams manage to accommodate changing needs and at the same time maintain the quality of the product? In order to answer this question, grounded theory study based on 15 semi-structured interviews was conducted in order to find out about the wide spectrum of architecture practices in software product developing organisations. Our results indicate that a chief architect or central developer acts as a ‘walking architecture’ devising changes and discussing local designs while at the same time updating his own knowledge about problematic aspects that need to be addressed. Architecture documentation and representations might not be used, especially if they replace the feedback from on-going developments into the ‘architecturing’ practices. Referring to results from Computer Supported Cooperative Work, we discuss how explicating the existing architecture needs to be complemented by social protocols to support the communication and knowledge sharing processes of the ‘walking architecture’.     

An essay on the linguistic roots of fuzzy sets

This paper mainly tries to show that the membership function of a fuzzy set labeled P does show some intrinsic property related with how P is actually managed in the universe of discourse. Its final goal is to analyze an answer to the question, which intrinsic but simple property allows a function to represent a fuzzy set labeled P? The presented property exhibits that the membership function just ‘measures’ in some scale the extent up to which x is P in language, for all x in the universe of discourse.Such study is done in a form allowing to consider how to represent the ‘collective’ originated by a predicate reflecting a collective noun. As particular cases of what is presented, and when the degrees can be some kinds of numerical subsets, the Zadeh’s fuzzy sets, the interval-valued, the intuitionistic, and the type-2 fuzzy sets, appear as particular cases and to some extent are discussed. A ‘unification’ of all different kinds of fuzzy sets based on a linguistic origin is achieved.     

Politeness strategies in collaborative e-mail exchanges

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) has been the subject of a wide range of studies over the last twenty years. Previous research suggests that CSCL exchanges can facilitate group-based learning and knowledge construction among learners who are in different geographical locations (Littleton, K. & Whitelock, D. (2004). Guiding the creation of knowledge and understanding in a virtual learning environment. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 7(2), 173). A less known fact, however, is that successful CSCL exchanges depend on the social interaction that takes place among participants. This social interaction is crucial, since it affects both cognitive and socio-emotional processes that take place during learning (Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P., Jochems, W. & Van Buuren, H. (2004). Determining sociability, social space, and social presence in (a) synchronous collaborative groups. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 7 (2), 156). Nevertheless, its presence in these exchanges should not be taken for granted, since there are certain barriers which may impede interaction; for example, students may not know each other previously (high social distance) and requests and offers which appear recurrently in collaborative learning messages can threaten the participants’ negative face ( Brown and Levinson 1978, 1987). In order to explore how participants overcome these barriers, we have analysed the linguistic features of politeness strategies used in the introductory e-mails exchanged between eleven students and their partners, who are students of English and Spanish, respectively. Our findings show that partners in collaborative e-mail exchanges do not use negative politeness strategies as often as we might expect in encounters where the social distance between participants is high, but they rely heavily on positive politeness strategies, especially those relating to ‘claiming common ground’, ‘assuming or asserting reciprocity’ and ‘conveying cooperation’. The presence of these strategies would indicate that fostering closeness, solidarity and cohesion becomes the priority to be achieved between the partners, instead of the expected negative politeness mechanisms whose aim is to demonstrate high social distance and, therefore, formality and impersonality.     

Causal attributions of success and failure made by undergraduate students in an introductory-level computer programming course

The purpose of this research is to identify the causal attributions of business computing students in an introductory computer programming course, in the computer science department at Notre Dame University, Louaize. Forty-five male and female undergraduates who completed the computer programming course that extended for a 13-week semester participated. Narrative interviews were conducted to obtain their perceptions. While some research confirmed that the four most responsible causes for success and failure in achievement contexts are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck, this research shows that in its context ‘ability’ and ‘luck’ were absent, and ‘task difficulty’ and ‘effort’ were almost absent. In all, participants made 10 causal attributions that were either cultural or specific to computer programming. The 10 causal attributions are ‘learning strategy’, ‘lack of study’, ‘lack of practice’, ‘subject difficulty’, ‘lack of effort’, ‘appropriate teaching method’, ‘exam anxiety’, ‘cheating’, ‘lack of time’, and ‘unfair treatment’. All high achievers cited appropriate ‘learning strategy’.     

Web-based quiz-game-like formative assessment: Development and evaluation

This research aims to develop a multiple-choice Web-based quiz-game-like formative assessment system, named GAM-WATA. The unique design of ‘Ask-Hint Strategy’ turns the Web-based formative assessment into an online quiz game. ‘Ask-Hint Strategy’ is composed of ‘Prune Strategy’ and ‘Call-in Strategy’. ‘Prune Strategy’ removes one incorrect option and turns the original 4-option item into a 3-option one. ‘Call-in Strategy’ provides the rate at which other test takers choose each option when answering a question. This research also compares the effectiveness of three different types of formative assessment in an e-Learning environment: paper-and-pencil test (PPT), normal Web-based test (N-WBT) and GAM-WATA. In total, 165 fifth grade elementary students (from six classes) in central Taiwan participated in this research. The six classes of students were then divided into three groups and each group was randomly assigned one type of formative assessment. Overall results indicate that different types of formative assessment have significant impacts on e-Learning effectiveness and that the e-Learning effectiveness of the students in the GAM-WATA group appears to be better. Students in the GAM-WATA group more actively participate in Web-based formative assessment to do self-assessment than students in the N-WBT group. The effectiveness of formative assessment will not be significantly improved only by replacing the paper-and-pencil test with Web-based test. The strategies included in GAM-WATA are recommended to be taken into consideration when researchers design Web-based formative assessment systems in the future.