Relation of race, age, and sex hormone differences to serum leptin concentrations in children and adolescents

We explored the effects of race, age, and sex hormones on the serum leptin concentrations in 203 white and 88 black children and adolescents (ages 9.3-20.5 years). A significant sex by race interaction on serum leptin levels (p = 0.0301) was observed with lower serum leptin concentrations, adjusted for subscapular thickness and age, in black boys than in white boys. Girls had serum leptin levels that were on average 2.15 times those of boys (p < 0.0001). There was an age by sex interaction (p < 0.0001) with serum leptin concentrations decreasing in boys but not in girls with age. A strongly inverse relationship of serum testosterone levels with serum leptin levels in boys (p = 0.0067) appeared to explain this effect of age. In conclusion, the serum leptin concentration is slightly lower in black boys. A higher testosterone level in boys appears to account for an age-related decline in serum leptin in boys and the overall lower levels in boys than in girls.     

Sex differences in children's mathematics achievement: Solving computations and story problems.

Examined the performance of 144,462 male and 142,305 female California 6th-graders (aged 135–261 mo) on 2 types of mathematics items: computations and story problems. Data represent Ss' responses to the Survey of Basic Skills, Grade 6, of the California Assessment Program. Results indicate that girls were more likely than boys to solve computations successfully, whereas boys were more likely than girls to be successful with story problems. Sex is shown to be a significant factor in predicting student success. Problem-solving success for the 2 types of items is also examined in relation to reading achievement, SES, primary language, and age. It was found that girls had higher measured reading achievement than boys; however, girls who achieved higher scores in reading were nonetheless relatively weaker in solving story problems than both other girls and boys. Little or no interaction was found between SES or language and sex. Age was not found to be a factor that contributes to sex differences in performance. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of sex-differentiated preferences during late childhood and adolescence.

Examined factors influencing sex-differentiated responses to selected interests and interpersonal traits by young people in 3 age groups: 516 in late childhood (Grades 4–6), 398 in early adolescence (Grades 7–9), and 337 in late adolescence (Grades 10–12). There was limited evidence for same-sex bias during late childhood, varying by sex and race in its pervasiveness or clarity. Interpersonal traits were not generally sex stereotyped. Several interests were sex stereotyped during adolescence, but not those most directly related to academic learning. In general, interests were more strongly sex stereotyped by boys than by girls. Greater cognitive maturity generally attenuated sex stereotyping of interests. Certain developmental trends differed by sex and/or by race, and socioeconomic background (parents" education) influenced developmental trends among Blacks but not among Whites. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys: A five-year longitudinal study.

This study investigated prospective risk factors for increases in body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys in the Eating Among Teens Project. At the time of first assessment (Time 1), participants were a cohort of early adolescent girls (N=440) and boys (N=366) and a cohort of middle adolescent girls (N=946) and boys (N=764). Participants were followed up 5 years later (Time 2). Potential prospective risk factors examined included body mass index, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, parent dieting environment, peer environment, and psychological factors. Predictors of Time 2 body dissatisfaction were Time 1 body dissatisfaction, body mass index, socioeconomic status, being African American, friend dieting and teasing, self-esteem, and depression. However, the profile of predictors differed across the samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recreational patterns, body composition and socioeconomic status of Western Australian secondary school students

A study of 4672 secondary school students was carried out in order to assess the relationship between body composition, recreational patterns, and socioeconomic status as indicated by parental occupation and the school attended. Results indicated that there were more girls than boys participating in organized sport, and health and fitness activities; and more boys than girls involved in informal recreational activities and home-based passive pursuits. A higher proportion of participants came from the higher socioeconomic status (SES) group. More high-SES students revealed weight appropriate to their height.     

Effect of altitude and socioeconomic status on VO2max and anaerobic power in prepubertal Bolivian girls

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of high altitude and low socioeconomic status (SES) on aerobic and anaerobic power in 11-yr-old Bolivian girls. At both high (3,600 m) and low (420 m) altitudes, low-SES groups of girls were compared to similarly aged, high-SES girls. At low altitude, low-SES girls were also compared with younger high-SES girls with the same anthropometric characteristics. Anthropometric data were similar between high-SES and low-SES girls at both altitudes, but low-SES girls showed a 9-mo growth delay. Maximal O2 uptake was significantly lower for low-SES girls at both altitudes. Values did not differ when expressed relative to body weight at high altitude for high-SES vs. low-SES girls (37.6 +/- 1.2 vs. 39.3 +/- 1.0 ml.min-1.kg body wt-1), but a difference persisted at low altitude between high- and low-SES girls (37.5 +/- 1.0 vs. 34.7 +/- 0.7 ml.min-1.kg body wt-1). Anaerobic power (Pmax, force-velocity test; Pwing, Wingate test) was reduced for low-SES girls at both altitudes, whatever the mode of expression. For a given SES, the relative anaerobic performances were lower at low altitude. At low altitude, low-SES girls developed lower anaerobic power than did younger high-SES girls with similar anthropometric characteristics. In conclusion, at both altitudes, the reduction of anaerobic performances observed in girls of low SES could not be totally explained by anthropometric factors. Structural and/or functional muscle alterations are suggested. Moreover, at low altitude, tropical and other factors may have contributed to differences in performance between low- and high-SES girls.     

Sex differences in the correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, sex role orientation, and performance on Piaget's water-level task.

In a study with 8th-grade boys and girls, significant sex differences were found on measures of spatial ability (Card Rotations Test), water-level performance, and sex-role orientation (Bem Sex Role Inventory), but not field dependence (Group Embedded Figures Test). For boys, correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, and water-level performance were significant, while for girls they were not. In contrast, sex role orientation was significantly related to field dependence and water-level performance for girls but not for boys. Results suggest a sex difference in the basis for mastering the water-level task. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in genetic and environmental influences on DSM–III–R attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Approximately 5% of children are affected by attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and more boys are affected than girls. This study examined the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on ADHD and several questions regarding sex differences in its prevalence and liability. The participants were 2,391 twin and sibling pairs from Australia, ages 3–18. ADHD symptoms in the general population were highly heritable (h2?=?.85–.90), as were deviant ADHD scores in the selected population. The magnitude of familial influences was similar for boys and girls, although there were shared environmental influences on ADHD in girls but not boys and dominance genetic influences on ADHD in boys but not girls. Specific genetic and environmental influences were highly similar for boys and girls. Evidence supported the polygenic multiple threshold model rather than the constitutional variability model of sex differences in ADHD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting Future Antisocial Personality Disorder in Males From a Clinical Assessment in Childhood.

It is essential to identify childhood predictors of adult antisocial personality disorder (APD) to target early prevention. It has variously been hypothesized that APD is predicted by childhood conduct disorder (CD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or both disorders. To test these competing hypotheses, the authors used data from a single childhood diagnostic assessment of 163 clinic-referred boys to predict future APD during early adulthood. Childhood Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) CD, but not ADHD, significantly predicted the boys' subsequent APD. An interaction between socioeconomic status (SES) and CD indicated that CD predicted APD only in lower SES families, however. Among children who met criteria for CD, their number of covert but not overt CD symptoms improved prediction of future APD, controlling for SES. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting practices as predictors of substance use, delinquency, and aggression among urban minority youth: Moderating effects of family structure and gender.

This study examined how parenting factors were associated with adolescent problem behaviors among urban minority youth and to what extent these relationships were moderated by family structure and gender. 228 6th grade students reported how often they use alcohol, smoke cigarettes, or engage in aggressive or delinquent behaviors; a parent or guardian reported their monitoring and other parenting practices. Findings indicated that boys and those from single-parent families engaged in the highest rates of problem behavior. More parental monitoring was associated with less delinquency overall, as well as less drinking in boys only. Eating family dinners together was associated with less aggression overall, as well as less delinquency in youth from single-parent families and in girls. Unsupervised time at home alone was associated with more smoking for girls only. Implications for prevention interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classroom racial proportions and children's peer relations: Race and gender effects.

Peer preferences (determined by both positive and negative sociometric choices) and perceptions of African-American and White children attending either majority White or majority African-American classrooms were examined. Results indicate that classroom racial minority status (i.e., being in a classroom in which most classmates are of a different race) is associated with peer rejection of girls but not of boys. Correlates of peer preferences differed for children in majority White vs African-American classes, providing support for the subjective culture hypothesis. Implications of these findings for girls' peer relations and for educational practices regarding classroom racial proportions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' interactions with middle- and lower SES preschool boys and girls.

Compared 9 preschool and 17 Head Start teachers' interactive behaviors with children of middle and lower socioeconomic status (SES). Observation data indicate that teachers of lower SES children had fewer verbal communications with them and more interactions with older adults. Data indicate that teachers of middle-SES children had higher rates of positive–neutral teacher initiation to children and higher rates of positive–neutral child initiation to teachers. Teachers of middle-SES children had a higher rate of negative initiation to boys than to girls. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socioeconomic status, neighborhood social conditions, and neural tube defects

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the contributions of lower socioeconomic status (SES) and neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics to neural tube defect etiology. The influence of additional factors, including periconceptional multivitamin use and race/ethnicity, was also explored. METHODS: Data derived from a case-control study of California pregnancies from 1989 to 1991. Mothers of 538 (87.8% of eligible) case infants/fetuses with neural tube defects and mothers of 539 (88.2%) nonmalformed infants were interviewed about their SES. Reported addresses were linked to 1990 US census information to characterize neighborhoods. RESULTS: Twofold elevated risks were observed for several SES indicators. Risks were somewhat confounded by vitamin use, race/ethnicity, age, body mass index, and fever but remained elevated after adjustment. A risk gradient was seen with increasing number of lower SES indicators. Women with 1 to 3 and 4 to 6 lower SES indicators had adjusted odds ratios of 1.6 (1.1-2.2) and 3.2 (1.9-5.4), respectively, compared with women with no lower SES indicators. CONCLUSIONS: Both lower SES and residence in a SES-lower neighborhood increased the risk of an neural tube defect-affected pregnancy, with risks increasing across a gradient of SES indicators.     

Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation.

Early hormones have been hypothesized to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviors. This study examined hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) aged 2.5–12 yrs (24 girls, 19 boys) and their relatives (16 girls, 25 boys). CAH girls preferred boys' toys and activities. They also had greater preference for boy playmates than controls, but this was largely attributable to 4 girls. CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls. Activity and playmate preferences were not related. It was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences; sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences; activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation; and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social dominance and cerebral hemisphericity: discriminating race, socioeconomic status, and sex groups by performance on two lateralized tests

A neurosociological argument is presented which hypothesizes that persons in positions of social subdominance--black racial status, low and middle socioeconomic status (SES), and female sexual status will, in comparison to persons in positions of dominance--white, high SES, and male, be right-hemispheric, i.e., will perform best on a test lateralized to the right cerebral hemisphere and its appositional mode of thought as opposed to a test lateralized to the left hemisphere and its propositional mode of thought. Data from 1058 adults from two probability samples (excluding left-handers, housewives and unemployed persons) are analyzed. Appositional performance is measured by the Street Gestalt-Completion Test (A), propositional performance by the WAIS Similarities Subtest (P), and right-hemisphericity by (A-P)/(A+P). Multigroup discriminant function analysis and three-way analyses of variance produced the following results: (1) blacks are more right-hemispheric than are whites, with lower similarities performance and higher Street performance; (2) SES varies directly with Similarities performance, but not with Street performance; (3) there is a two way interaction between race and SES such that middle SES groups are most right-hemispheric for whites, and low SES groups, most right-hemispheric for blacks; (4) females are more right hemispheric than are males among blacks and lower SES whites, reflecting in part the superior performance of black females on the Street test.     

Protection of both auditory hair cells and auditory neurons from cisplatin induced damage

Knowledge about body composition is important in metabolic and nutritional studies. In this cross-sectional study the body composition of 403 healthy white Dutch children and adolescents was evaluated by using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Possible determinants of body composition were analyzed. In 85 subjects the results of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) were compared with DXA. Fat mass, lean tissue mass, and bone mineral content were greater in older boys and girls. Percentage body fat was greater in older girls but not in boys and it was higher in girls than in boys at all ages. From the age of 14 y boys had higher lean tissue mass and bone mineral content than girls. Tanner stage had a significant relation with body composition in both sexes. Percentage body fat was lower in boys in stage 4 than in stage 3 and was higher in consecutive Tanner stages in girls. After adjustment for age, Tanner stage was significantly positively related to lean tissue mass and bone mineral content in boys and girls and to percentage body fat and fat mass in girls. The profession of the parents and the education of the father had a significant negative correlation with percentage body fat and fat mass in girls (P < 0.01). Physical activity was related to lean tissue mass (P = 0.001) but not to fat mass in boys after adjustment for age. A high correlation and a small difference was found between lean body mass by BIA and lean tissue mass by DXA. Body composition in healthy Dutch children and adolescents is related to age, sex, Tanner stage, socioeconomic status, and physical activity.     

Prospective analysis of personality and behavioral vulnerabilities and gender influences in the later development of disordered eating.

This article presents the 2-year findings of a prospective investigation of the precursors to the later development of an eating disorder in adolescents. The sample consisted of 852 girls and 815 boys who began the study in Grades 7–10 and participated for 3 consecutive years. For both genders, the strongest predictors of Year 3 risk status were Years 1 and 2 risk scores. When the effects of Year 1 and Year 2 risk were controlled, race (Caucasian) and poor interoceptive awareness at Year 2 were significant predictors of disordered eating at Year 3 for girls. Previous risk status was the only significant predictor of Year 3 risk for boys. Gender difference evaluations in the risk score components indicated that a significantly greater proportion of girls than boys endorsed behaviors that were similar to eating disorder diagnostic criteria. Poor interoceptive awareness may provide a vulnerability for eating disorders; possible pathways were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents.

128 adolescent boys (aged 14 yrs 2 mo to 19 yrs) from a maximum security prison for juvenile offenders were administered a task to assess hostile attributional biases. As hypothesized, these biases were positively correlated with undersocialized aggressive conduct disorder (as indicated by high scores on standardized scales and by psychiatric diagnoses), with reactive-aggressive behavior, and with the number of interpersonally violent crimes committed. Hostile attributional biases were found not to relate to nonviolent crimes or to socialized aggressive behavior disorder. These findings held even when race and estimates of intelligence and socioeconomic status (SES) were controlled. These findings suggest that within a population of juvenile offenders, attributional biases are implicated specifically in interpersonal reactive aggression that involves anger and not in socialized delinquency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, sex role orientation, and self-concept in Black and White third- and sixth-grade male and female leaders in a rural community.

Examined locus of control among 43 Black boys, 36 White boys, 35 Black girls, and 47 White girls from the 3rd and 6th grades. Ss had been selected as class leaders by their peers. Ss completed the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, the Who Should Test, and the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire. White female leaders were more internally controlled than were Black leaders and attributed good outcomes to personal attributes more often than did Black leaders. White female leaders were also more willing to accept responsibility for bad outcomes than were Black female leaders. Self-concept data and sex-role orientation data were not helpful in interpreting the findings but did serve to suggest several avenues for future research in the area of locus of control. Results do not support the findings of other researchers who found that girls attributed their success to luck or to luck and effort while boys attributed their success to effort. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)