A study of natural ventilation in a refuge floor

Under the Building Codes of Hong Kong Special Administration Region, the provision of refuge floors has been an indispensable element in high-rise building design since 1996. Wind-induced cross natural ventilation is an important design criterion of a refuge floor since it helps to prevent any smoke entering to become persistent state remained (logging) on the refuge floor. This paper reports a study of refuge floor natural ventilation induced by wind flow around a high-rise building with a refuge floor arriving from different wind incidence angles. The study is based on CFD simulations which are validated by wind tunnel measurements. The refuge floor under investigation has a main services core at the centre and support walls flush with the building walls along two opposite sides. The results reveal that at all wind angles, wind is able to enter the refuge space from the windward side and escape from the leeward side. At some wind angles, wind is found to re-enter the refuge space from the leeward opening and accumulate behind the main services core. Based on the results, we suggest that stairs connecting to the refuge space should be located inside the side corridors formed by the internal and external side walls.     

雷暴冲击风作用下高层建筑风压幅值特性研究

采用冲击射流装置模拟雷暴冲击风,对4个不同深宽比的高层建筑模型进行测压试验,分析了各模型8个不同径向位置处的风压幅值特性,并与大气边界层风作用下的建筑表面风压系数进行了对比。结果表明：雷暴冲击风作用下,建筑迎风面为正压,侧面和背风面均为负压;迎风面平均和脉动风压受模型深宽比影响较小,侧面和背风面受深宽比影响较大;随着径向距离的增加,迎风面平均风压系数逐渐减小,脉动风压系数先增大后减小,侧面平均风压系数绝对值以及脉动风压系数先增大后减小,背风面平均和脉动风压系数变化较为平缓;各模型迎风面风压系数沿高度呈“鼻子”状分布,最大风压出现在0.25H(H为模型高度);与大气边界层风作用下建筑表面风压幅值相比,雷暴冲击风作用下高层建筑模型的迎风面中下部区域以及侧面前缘部位风压系数较大,考虑雷暴冲击风作用的高层建筑设计时,应对这些区域的风荷载取值进行适当放大。     

开洞大型超高单层厂房墙面及排架风载体型系数研究

对不同开洞工况下的超高单层厂房模型进行风洞试验,研究不同开洞工况对厂房纵墙内外表面风压分布的影响,给出风压体型系数沿纵墙长度方向的变化规律并与规范值进行对比。试验结果表明：当山墙单一开洞时,对外风压分布影响不大;当两端山墙均开大洞时,纵墙内外表面风压沿来流方向衰减较快;山墙单一开洞会导致纵墙所受的极值风压增大,靠近开洞山墙的纵墙端部受风荷载较大,可以称之为端部效应;对山墙单一开洞厂房,纵墙在近开洞的端部区和其他区的最不利负风压（吸力）分别出现在0°（开洞墙面为正迎风面）和15°风向角;对于两端同时开洞工况,两端部区最不利负风压（吸力）出现在45°和135°风向角,非端部区则出现在150°风向角;所有工况中以较小开洞工况受力最为不利;对于迎风端部区排架水平受力最不利的工况为两端山墙都开大洞的情况。     

Effects of building wall arrangements on wind-induced ventilation through the refuge floor of a tall building

Wind-induced natural ventilation plays an important role in the fire and smoke safety of a refuge floor. This paper reports a computational fluid dynamics study to investigate the effect of building wall arrangements on the amount of wind-induced ventilation through a refuge floor which is located at the building mid-height. The refuge floor analysed has a large service core at its centre and is surrounded by exterior building walls, which are arranged in nine configurations that represent varying degrees of opening to wind flow. Results of computed flow patterns show that the wind-induced natural ventilation rate of a refuge floor varies significantly depending on the number of enclosing external walls and the incidence wind angle. A refuge floor, having only one side open, results in the worst natural ventilation and is not recommended.     

High-resolution CFD simulations for forced convective heat transfer coefficients at the facade of a low-rise building

High-resolution 3D steady RANS CFD simulations of forced convective heat transfer at the facades of a low-rise cubic (10 × 10 × 10 m³) building are performed to determine convective heat transfer coefficients (CHTC). The focus is on the windward facade. CFD validation is performed based on wind tunnel measurements of velocity and heat transfer for reduced-scale cubic models. The CFD simulations employ a high-resolution grid with, for the 10 m cubic building, cell centres at a minimum distance of 160 μm from the building surface to resolve the entire boundary layer, including the viscous sublayer and the buffer layer, which dominate the convective surface resistance. The results show that: (1) the wind flow around the building results in highly varying CHTC values across the windward facade; (2) standard and non-equilibrium wall functions are not suitable for CHTC calculation, necessitating either low-Reynolds number modelling or specially-adapted wall functions; (3) at every facade position, the CHTC is a power-law function of the mean wind speed; (4) the CHTC distribution at the windward facade is relatively insensitive to wind direction variations in the 0–67.5° angle range; (5) the CHTC shows a stronger spatial correlation with the turbulent kinetic energy than with the mean wind speed across the facade; and (6) the CHTC distribution across the windward facade is quite similar to the distribution of wind-driven rain (WDR), with both parameters reaching high levels near the top edge of the facade. This suggests that also the convective moisture transfer coefficient will be higher at this location and that the facade parts that receive most WDR might also experience a higher drying rate.     

环状大悬臂挑篷风载特性与风场绕流分析

基于FLUENT软件并引入k-ε湍流模型,对环状大悬臂挑篷屋盖风载和风场进行模拟分析。数值计算分析风向角、屋盖倾角、看台后部通风率、挑篷开洞、有无后挑等参数对挑篷屋盖风压分布的影响;针对屋盖周围气流的绕流特性,分析设置屋盖竖向气动导流板和在挑篷外环边缘附近开洞对降低屋盖负风压的作用。研究结果表明：无论风向角如何变化,水平挑篷屋盖上风压均以吸力为主,较高的吸力分布在迎风的前缘位置;屋盖倾角宜设在 0°~15°范围,过大或过小均不利于结构抗风;增大结构迎风面的通风率有利于减小水平屋盖的平均风压;屋盖是否后挑对水平屋盖上表面的风压影响较小;增设屋盖竖向导流板可减低水平屋盖前缘局部极值风压;在环状挑篷外环边缘附近开洞可较明显减小屋盖风压。     

周边干扰对煤气柜表面风压的影响

根据刚性模型风洞测压试验所得数据,研究了不同的周边干扰条件下柜体表面平均风压系数的变化规律,对比分析了不同柜体间距时干扰效应的变化情况。研究结果表明:干扰煤气柜位于柜体的正前方时,柜体迎风面平均风压系数显著减小;干扰煤气柜位于柜体的正后方时,柜体背风面平均风压系数会增大;两煤气柜相互平行时,柜体背风面平均风压系数会减小;柜体间距会对干扰效应产生影响,干扰效应随着柜体间距的变化而发生变化;在迎风面与侧风面,规范值有较高的安全储备;而在背风面,其安全储备略有不足。     

Wind tunnel tests on compartment fires with crossflow ventilation

When a fire occurs in a room at ground level or a compartment located in the higher floors of a very tall building , the strong ambient wind will play an important role in fire spreading and smoke movement behavior. However, wind effect on compartment fire in cross ventilation condition has not been fully studied so far. In the present study, an effort has been made to study the wind effect on compartment fire in cross ventilation condition through experimental investigations. The experimental fire was generated by 250 ml n-heptane on the floor center of a cube enclosure with two opposite vents on the walls. The inside and outside gas temperature profiles at different vertical and horizontal locations were recorded by two thermocouple matrixes. The ambient wind velocity was set to 0, 1.5 and 3 m s⁻¹. It is observed that the ambient wind would enhance the fire severity by increasing the compartment fire temperature and reducing the time to flashover. The spilled-out flame/plume would extend horizontally farther with the increase of wind speed. Simple theoretical analysis shows that there is a critical wind velocity, or a dimensional number, to differentiate whether the gas flow across the vents is bidirectional or unidirectional, which is believed to influence enclosure fire behavior greatly.     

Effects of grid curtains on the wind loads of a high‐rise building

The effects of grid curtains on the local and overall wind loads of a high‐rise building are investigated in detail according to a series of wind pressure and wind force tests on rigid model in a wind tunnel. The effects of grid curtains on the mean and fluctuating wind pressures on windward and sideward walls when the wind direction is parallel to the geometrical axes are investigated, along with the effects of the most unfavorable wind pressures for all wind directions. Furthermore, the effects of grid curtains on the mean and fluctuating aerodynamic forces on the entire building are also analyzed for various wind directions, along with the effects of grid curtains on the aerodynamic force spectra when the wind direction is parallel to the geometric axes. The test results indicate that grid curtains affect the mean and fluctuating windward pressure slightly but greatly influence the large sideward negative pressures. Grid curtains increase the mean and fluctuating windward aerodynamic forces and reduce the fluctuating aerodynamic torsions. According to the aerodynamic force spectra, grid curtains can mainly affect the wind forces in the low‐frequency range. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Net pressure and correlation characteristics between internal and external pressures for tall building with opening

Net pressure and correlation characteristics between internal and external pressures for a typical high‐rise building with a dominant opening are detailed investigated by a series of wind tunnel experiments on a scaled rigid model. The experimental results show that internal pressures are absolutely spatially relevant. When the dominant opening faces to approaching wind, there exists strong positive correlation between internal and external pressures of each tap on the windward wall, whereas negative correlation can be observed for each tap on the other walls. At the wind directions of 15° and 75°, the highest negative correlation coefficient occurs on the right side wall and is up to ?0.6 and the mean values of area‐averaged net pressure coefficient on the right side wall also reach their maximum and minimum values, respectively; meanwhile, the values of standard deviation of area‐averaged net pressure coefficient are also much higher. Thus, it should be paid more attention to the wind‐resistant design of side wall envelopes because they are easier to be destroyed.     

台风 “鲇鱼”作用下厦门沿海某超高层建筑的风场和风压特性实测研究

为研究我国沿海地区超高层建筑的风场和风压特性,在2010年台风“鲇鱼”登陆前后对厦门沿海某超高层建筑的风场和建筑表面风压进行了同步监测。通过对实测风场和风压数据的深入分析表明：沿海地区超高层建筑风场的湍流度随风速增大变化平稳,阵风因子随湍流度的增大而增大;实测脉动风速功率谱密度与von Karman谱吻合较好;建筑各面内测点之间的瞬时风压、平均风压、平均风压系数和极值风压系数具有较强的相关性;实测平均风压和平均风压系数在迎风面较大,在背风面非常小;当风从角部吹向建筑时,随着风向角的变化,两迎风面的平均风压系数随着平均风速的增大变化规律相反;两背风面的平均风压系数随着平均风速的增大逐渐减小;迎风面的极值风压系数随着风向角的变化正负波动较大,背风面的极值风压系数分布较为均匀;迎风面的脉动风压系数较大且变化较大,背风面的脉动风压系数非常小且变化平稳;建筑各面的极值风压系数和脉动风压系数的幅值随着风速的增大逐渐减小。     

A fire safety study of Hong Kong refuge floor building wall layout design

Since 1996, refuge floors have been an indispensable passive building element of the fire protection plan for Hong Kong high-rise buildings. These floors must be designed to comply with the relevant requirements of the Building Codes of Hong Kong. Hence, 50% of the floor area must be deployed for refuge purposes. And they must have at least two fully open building side walls so that a desired wind effect is assumed so that any smoke that enters will be purged from the safe area. Therefore wind-induced natural cross-ventilation is of prime importance for the protection of the refuge floor in fire safety. If this wind effect is not achieved, entering smoke will accumulate and cause the safety system to fail. Therefore fundamental studies of this flow phenomenon are very important and needed. This paper studies the wind-induced flow behaviour of Hong Kong's refuge floors. Different building wall layout designs are addressed. By way of this study, the author suggests that a refuge floor shall be designed to have two opposite building side walls open instead of the present Building Codes that require at least any two of them.     

Numerical investigation of wind‐induced airflow and interunit dispersion characteristics in multistory residential buildings

Compared with the buoyancy‐dominated upward spread, the interunit dispersion of pollutants in wind‐dominated conditions is expected to be more complex and multiple. The aim of this study is to investigate the wind‐induced airflow and interunit pollutant dispersion in typical multistory residential buildings using computational fluid dynamics. The mathematical model used is the nonstandard k–ε model incorporated with a two‐layer near‐wall modification, which is validated against experiments of previous investigators. Using tracer gas technique, the reentry of exhaust air from each distinct unit to other units on the same building, under different practical conditions, is quantified, and then, the possible dispersion routes are revealed. The units on the floor immediately below the source on the windward side, and vertically above it on the leeward side, where the reentry ratios are up to 4.8% and 14.9%, respectively, should be included on the high‐infection list. It is also found that the presence of balconies results in a more turbulent near‐wall flow field, which in turn significantly changes the reentry characteristics. Comparison of the dispersion characteristics of the slab‐like building and the more complicated building in cross (#) floorplan concludes that distinctive infectious control measures should be implemented in these two types of buildings.     

单侧自然通风条件下强热源附近热环境的试验研究

以某冷轧钢厂房为研究对象,采用模型试验的方法,搭建试验模型小室,研究了单侧自然通风条件下不同热源放置位置对热源两侧迎、背风面温度分布规律的影响,以及热源非中央放置时模型小室两侧内壁面温度和中央温度梯度的分布情况。在不受其他因素影响下,迎风侧空气温度低于背风侧;热源距离侧面墙壁较近一侧空气温度高于较远一侧。指出在热源散热量确定的情况下,合理的热源布置位置和优化的通风方案是改善强热源室内热环境的有效措施。     

A computational study of the aerodynamic forces acting on a tractor-trailer vehicle on a bridge in cross-wind

This paper examines the effect of truck speed on the aerodynamic forces acting on a standard sized, North American transport truck travelling across a bridge under conditions of cross-wind. The objective is to establish a relationship between wind speed, truck speed and propensity for truck rollover that may be used to devise strategies for accident avoidance. Conditions of a moving truck travelling in both windward and leeward lanes were considered with a cross-wind speed of 120 km/h and truck speeds of 0-120 km/h. Using the calculated pressure distributions on the surface of the truck; the aerodynamic lift, drag and moment coefficients were determined for relative wind directions. The results show that the aerodynamic moment tending to overturn a truck in the windward lane of the bridge rises from approximately 120 kN m at low speeds (0-40 km/h) to 217 kN m at a truck speed of 120 km/h. For a truck in the leeward lane, the corresponding moments are substantially less, at 82 and 154 kN m, respectively. The 1.1 m barrier wall along the side of the bridge is a contributing factor to the aerodynamic difference between windward and leeward lanes.     

稳态冲击射流作用下平地及坡地高层建筑的风荷载特性

现行规范的设计风荷载以普通大气边界层风场为主,其平均风剖面为指数型或对数型。下击暴流风场的典型风剖面与普通边界层风场差异很大。基于稳态冲击射流试验和数值模拟分析,考虑平地与坡地两种地形以及坡地坡度的影响,研究冲击射流风场中的高层建筑物表面风压分布特性与风荷载情况。风洞试验和数值模拟结果表明：冲击射流风场中建筑表面风压分布不同于大气边界层风场,迎风面最大风压出现在建筑下部;坡地上建筑物迎风面风压小于同等情况下平地上建筑物迎风面风压,而在侧面和背风面则呈现出相反的规律。对不同坡度坡地上的模型分析结果表明,随着坡地坡度的增大,建筑迎风面风压逐渐减小。     

外界风影响下高层建筑竖井自然排烟可行性

以高层建筑竖井自然排烟为研究对象,利用FDS软件对竖井自然排烟进行模拟,研究外界风对自然排烟的影响.模拟结果表明:当排烟口处于迎风面时,竖井自然排烟受到的影响最大;当竖井顶部四面开启排烟口时,自然排烟受室外风的影响最小.由模拟可见,通过合理设计竖井结构,高层建筑竖井自然排烟是可行的.     

Turbulence effects on the discharge coefficient and mean flow rate of wind-driven cross-ventilation

This experimental study uses a wind tunnel and scale model to investigate turbulence effects on the discharge coefficient and mean flow rate of wind-driven cross-ventilation. The approaching flows include low turbulence smooth flow and grid-generated turbulent flow. Two different cross-ventilation configurations are considered in this study: (1) two opposite walls, each with one opening, and (2) two adjacent walls, each with one opening. The discharge coefficients of different flow conditions are determined by a fan technique. It is found that the discharge coefficient is a function of Reynolds number, wind incidence angle and direction of air flow (inhale or exhale), but independent of external turbulence intensity and wall porosity. However, because the leeward pressure is affected by external turbulence, the internal pressure and inlet velocity are dependent on external turbulence when the openings are on the opposite walls. The experimental results also verify that internal pressure and mean air flow rate can be predicted once the external pressure distribution and opening areas are known, regardless of whether the openings are on opposite walls or on adjacent walls.     

双坡低矮建筑风压系数的概率统计特性分析

基于低矮建筑表面风压测量风洞试验数据,分析了低矮建筑各部位风压系数的概率统计特征。分析结果显示,在迎风墙、屋盖上风区和侧墙上风区以及斜风时屋盖某些关键测点上,风压系数的偏度系数和峰度系数都严重偏离高斯过程对应值,表现出很强的非高斯性;在背风墙、屋盖下风区和侧墙下风区,尽管风压系数的偏度系数接近高斯过程对应值,但峰度系数仍然偏大,风压系数仍然是非高斯性的。将利用峰值因子法得到的模型各测点上的最不利正、负风压系数与直接观察法得到的结果进行了对比,结果表明,峰值因子法低估了墙面上的最不利正、负风压系数,低估了屋盖上的最不利负风压系数,但高估了屋盖上的正风压系数,估计误差率在-37%～+120%之间。     

群体高层建筑的峰值风压分布特征

基于同步测压技术,研究了不同宽度比和不同高度比（记为Br和Hr,分别表示施扰和受扰建筑的宽度与高度之比）的2个高层建筑在串列、斜列和并列布置时峰值风压干扰效应。结果表明：邻近施扰建筑的侧面峰值风压主要呈现放大效应,且宽度比越大（Br≤1时）,高度比越大,放大效应越明显,立面最高负风压系数绝对值可升高30%。迎风面放大效应区则主要集中在施扰建筑位于横风向间距为3b(b为受扰建筑的迎风宽度)的迎风区域内,立面最高正风压系数可升高40%。当串列间距较小且高度比小于1（Hr=0.8）时产生的三维绕流现象可使得受扰建筑侧面局部风压升高61%,迎风面边缘局部风压升高24%。并列布置时产生的峡谷效应引起足够的重视,试验测得最大干扰因子可达2.13且随并列间距的增大而减少,当并列间距超过9b时峡谷效应才渐趋消失。由试验结果回归得到的并列布置时的侧立面最大峰值风压干扰因子随并列间距变化的关系式具有较高可信度。