Caractérisation minéralogique et géotechnique des argiles marneuses gonflantes de la région de Médéa,Algérie

This paper presents the approach followed for the geological, mineralogical, and geotechnical characterization of swelling marly clays in the Médéa region. This investigation is conducted in order to estimate the swelling potential of this marly clay layer. The studied sites, located at about 80 km south of Algiers, Algeria, cover an area of approximatively 400 hectares. Five sites are considered. In the first step, the geological, tectonic, climatic, and hydrological contexts of the region are described. According to the geological map of Médéa, most of the formations encountered in the area are composed of Miocene layers represented by marly clays (Fig. 2). This region is characterized by its high and low temperature in summer and winter, respectively, and variable humidity (Fig. 3). In a second step, the results of geotechnical studies, X-ray diffraction tests, chemical analyses, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations are presented (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The soils contain quartz (20–26 %), calcium carbonates (11–55 %), kaolinite (8–13 %), illite (6–14 %) and Montmorillonite (18–26 %). The study of their microstructure by means of SEM indicates that these soils are formed by a compact marly clay matrix that is relatively homogeneous and oriented in the dip direction of bedding. A grain size analysis shows that the clay content varies between 17 and 70 %. The water content of all samples varies between 8 and 30 %. The values of the liquidity limit (LL) and plasticity index (PI) vary between 28–76 % and 16–36 % respectively, indicating a highly plastic soil; this is also confirmed by a specific surface varying between 99 and 179 m²/g. The dry density γ _d varies between 15 and 19 kN/m³. The swelling potential of the marly clay samples is evaluated firstly using various indirect methods. In literature, a number of empirical classifications are proposed by different authors (BRE 1980; Chen 1988; Komornik and David 1969; Seed et al. 1962; Snethen 1984; Vijayvergiya et Ghazzaly 1973 et Williams and Donaldson 1980). The swelling potential is related to certain physical properties of soils, such as consistency limits, clay content, methylene blue value, etc. In general, these methods indicate that all the tested soils have a high swelling potential, which confirms the results of mineralogical analysis. Secondly, direct measurements of swelling parameters are performed. Swelling tests are carried out using a standard slaved one-dimensional odometer using two methods: free swell and constant volume, according to standard ASTM D 4546-90 and AFNOR (1995). The swell pressure, the swell percentage and the swell index are given in Fig. 16. It is noted that the soils develop very significant swell pressures which vary between 25 and 900 kPa. This is in agreement with the results obtained by empirical methods. This investigation clearly shows that the marly clays of the Médéa region have a high swelling potential. Therefore, taking into account the phenomenon of soil swelling in structure design is essential.     

改良膨胀土的干湿循环特性试验研究

干湿循环作用对改良膨胀土的工程性质存在重要的影响,而目前这方面的研究成果很少。以掺石灰和粉煤灰改良的典型合肥膨胀土为研究对象,通过系统的室内试验,研究在干湿循环作用下,改良膨胀土的膨胀性、界限含水量、颗粒分布以及无侧限抗压强度等方面的变化规律,深入探讨干湿循环作用对改良膨胀土工程性质的影响。结果表明,改良膨胀土的膨胀量、液限、塑性指数、黏粒含量随干湿循环次数的增加而增大,而塑限、粉粒含量以及无侧限抗压强度则随干湿循环次数的增加而减小。     

酸碱污染重塑粉质黏土的塑性及其与力学特性的关系

酸碱溶液会显著改变黏性土的力学特性因而在污染土的研究中备受关注。通过室内试验,详细研究了硫酸、盐酸和氢氧化钠污染重塑粉质黏土的现象、孔隙水离子成分以及土的塑性、压缩性和强度的变化规律。从孔隙溶液的pH值、离子交换以及土的结构三方面解释了硫酸和氢氧化钠污染土塑性增大、盐酸污染土塑性减小的机理。给出了这3种污染土的力学特性与塑性指标之间的关系,并与一些用于非污染重塑土的经验公式进行了对比。发现这3种酸碱污染土均表现出一定的结构性,尽管结构性形成的机理并不相同,但均导致压缩性增大,适用于非污染重塑土的经验公式会低估这类污染土的压缩性。研究发现这种低浓度的污染土的结构性不足以改变不排水抗剪强度cu与液性指数IL之间的关系,因而其强度可以大致通过未污染土的cu–IL关系来预测。     

Stabilization of clay soils using lime and effect of pH variations on shear strength parameters

This paper presents the results of geotechnical and mineralogical investigations on lime treated clay soils from Hamedan City, Iran, and effects of pH variations on their shear strength parameters. Initially, lime was added in different percentages and laboratory experiments were conducted after curing times. The results indicate that these soils can be stabilized satisfactorily with the addition of about 7 % lime. Also, investigation of the relationship between lime-treated geotechnical properties and lime percentage and curing time demonstrates high regression coefficients for the proposed relationships. Several laboratory tests were performed on treated and untreated clay soils with lime mixed with pore fluids with different pH values including 3, 5, 7 and 9. The results of shear strength tests indicated that the undrained shear strength parameters for untreated clays increased considerably if the pore fluid had a high pH (pH = 9) or a low pH (pH = 3). It can also be found that for lime-treated soils, maximum cohesion and friction angle values are achieved at pH = 9.     

Settlements in Fine-Grained Soils Under Cyclic Loading

Based on the methods previously presented by the authors (Yasuhara et al., 1992, 1994, 1996) for predicting the degradation in strength and stiffness of soft clays in the course of cyclic loading, a methodology has been developed to estimate the cyclic loading-induced settlements. The method also includes not only immediate settlements but also post-cyclic long-term settlements due to dissipation of cyclically induced excess pore pressures in soft soils. The simplified formulae included in the proposed methodology are given as functions of the amplitude of cyclic-induced excess pore pressure normalized by the confining pressure, u/p'_c, plasticity index I_p and factor of safety against bearing capacity failure, F_s. The calculations of cyclic-induced settlements were conducted for soft soil deposits with different index and geotechnical properties. The results calculated using the proposed methodology are presented in the form of a design chart to give the settlement versus normalized excess pore pressure ratio relations including the effects of the plasticity index and safety factor for bearing capacity. An example of the calculated results using the proposed procedure for the earthquake-induced settlements of embankments founded on soft clay, is presented to demonstrate the practicality of the method for design at fields.     

Reappraisal of the Activity of Clays. Activity Chart

The proposed activity chart, which aims to classify soils (<425 μm) using the Atterberg limits, differs from the plasticity chart recently proposed by the author because the inorganic soils with platey clay minerals are classified (in addition to clay percentage) on the basis of their activity rather than on the degree of plasticity as a function of the liquid limit value, currently used by the standards. This is because soils that have the same liquid limit value may have very different characteristics because of both the amount and type of clay minerals contained in the soils. On the activity chart, the silt and the clay zones are subdivided (by two straight lines) in three new groups (low activity, medium activity and high activity) making it possible to classify inorganic soils with platey clay minerals (or their fraction) <425 μm on the basis of the amount and type of clay minerals they contain. The activity chart adapted to predict residual shear behaviour of cohesive soils is also shown. Finally, the distinction between coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils based on their percentage of clay (<2 μm), might be useful in characterizing and predicting soils' engineering behaviour.     

Prediction of expansive soil swelling based on four micro-scale properties

A comprehensive study of expansive soil behavior includes understanding the surface phenomena of clay particles within the soil matrix. This research studies four micro-scale properties of four remolded expansive soils––matric suction, pH, surface conductance and percentage of montmorillonite––in order to predict soil swelling. An approach to approximate surface conductance is presented. Linear regression analyses were undertaken in an attempt to predict percent swell and swell pressure based on each of these micro-scale properties. Matric suction was found to be the most accurate predictor of the swelling behavior of the studied soils, which were initially compacted at optimum moisture content. Surface conductance, which is a combination of specific surface area, cation exchange capacity and cation mobility, also gave good predictions, except for one soil with high acidity.     

The effect of different types of water on the swelling behaviour of expansive clays

In the design of foundations of structures, especially light buildings, on clayey soils, the main soil behaviours to be considered are swelling properties and surface heave. Therefore, determination of swelling properties by means of swell percent and maximum swell pressure as well as estimation of the surface is very important in the investigation of such soils and light structures on them. In order to obtain the swelling parameters of clayey soils, experimental laboratory tests were carried out and standardised. Distilled water is generally used during these experimental tests; however, the soil in situ interacts with different types of water having different water chemistries. Therefore, the swelling behaviour of expansive soils tested with distilled water would naturally be different from the behaviour of expansive soils tested with different water types and chemistries. For this reason, it was anticipated that determination of the realistic swell behaviour in laboratory experiments requires the use of the same water as in the in situ condition. In this article, the effect of the water type and chemistry on the swelling behaviour of the clays was investigated by testing the clay samples with eight different types of water collected from the sea, river, lake and different rock formations. The main result of this research was that the anticipated clay swell percentages and pressures for different types of water were lower than for the distilled water routinely used in testing.     

Characteristics of Soils with Low Plasticity: Intermediate Soil from Ishinomaki,Japan and Lean Clay From Drammen,Norway

Two soils with low plasticity are investigated; intermediate soil from Ishinomaki, Japan and lean clay from Dram- men, Norway. Since both the soils were retrieved using the Japanese sampling method, the test results from these samples are comparable. Though they have the same order of plasticity index (I_p), there is a significant difference in the grain size distribution characteristics between these soils. Ishinomaki intermediate soil contains a lot of sand or silt sized particles, its I_p value being nearly proportional to its clay content. On the other hand, Drammen clay consists of a large proportion of rock flour, which contains little clay mineral. The study shows that the unconfined compression test significantly underestimates the undrained shear strength for both soils, and their residual effective stress (p'_r) is also very low. It has been found that to compensate for loss of p'_r, recompression tests are useful methods to evaluate the strength of such soils.     

自由膨胀比指标评价改良膨胀土的膨胀性

针对自由膨胀率试验中存在的不足以及改良膨胀土膨胀性评价的难点,引入自由膨胀比指标用于掺灰改良膨胀土的膨胀性评价。试验研究表明:自由膨胀比指标与改良膨胀土的基本物理力学性质指标(包括颗粒分布、界限含水率等)以及常用的膨胀土胀缩性指标(包括自由膨胀率、膨胀量、膨胀力与线缩率)间存在良好的线性相关关系。自由膨胀比方法具有操作相对简单,可靠性好等优点,对实际工程的预测结果与实测结果基本一致。利用自由膨胀比指标可以有效进行改良膨胀土膨胀性强弱的预测评价,具有重要的理论意义和应用价值。     

利用膨润土的膨胀和稠度特性对GCL渗透系数进行预测的试验研究

以土工合成粘土衬垫(Geosynthetic Clay Liner,GCL)在尾矿库防渗层中的应用为背景,研究不同浓度重金属离子(Cu和Zn)作用下,膨润土的自由膨胀量、液限及GCL渗透系数的变化规律,并分析它们之间的对应关系。试验结果显示,当重金属离子浓度在0.01mol/L到0.1mol/L之间递增时,膨润土的自由膨胀量和液限会随着重金属离子浓度的增大而大幅度减小,但当重金属离子浓度从0.1mol/L增加到0.5mol/L时,膨润土的自由膨胀量和液限则只有微小变化。在渗透试验中,当渗透溶液中重金属离子浓度小于0.01mol/L时,GCL的渗透系数能够保持稳定;但当重金属离子浓度大于0.02mol/L后,GCL的渗透系数会随着渗透溶液中重金属离子的浓度增加而不断升高。研究结果表明,当尾矿库渗滤液中重金属离子浓度大于0.02mol/L时,GCL的渗透系数与膨润土的自由膨胀量和液限之间具有良好的数学对应关系,可以利用自由膨胀量和液限对渗透系数进行预测。     

Testing shrinkage factors: comparison of methods and correlation with index properties of soils

The paper presents a study on the shrinkage properties of three clay soils from Poland. Shrinkage limit, volumetric shrinkage and relative volumetric shrinkage were determined, tested according to PN-88/B-04481 (1988) and BS1377: Part 2 (1990) and correlated with the index properties of soils. The shrinkage limit was also calculated from Krabbe’s (1958) equation. The results showed that shrinkage limit values obtained by the BS method are lower than those obtained using the PN method, but the values calculated from Krabbe’s equation differ significantly. While no strong correlation was found between shrinkage limit and index soil parameters, linear relationships were obtained between volumetric shrinkage and initial moisture content, shrinkage range, plasticity index and clay content. Following multivariable regression analysis, the relative volumetric shrinkage was expressed as a function of plasticity index and moisture content. This function can be used to predict volumetric changes of the foundations based on the moisture content and material properties of the soil.     

Study on fired bricks with replacing clay by fly ash in high volume ratio

In present paper fly ash in wet state with low quality was used as raw material to replace clay to make fired bricks. The effect of fly ash with high replacing ratio of clay on firing parameters and properties of bricks were studied. The results indicate that the plasticity index of mixture of fly ash and clay decrease dramatically with increasing of replacing ratio of fly ash. Additive A can be chosen to improve the plasticity index of mixture to meet plastic extrusion used in most brick making factories. The sintering temperature of bricks with high replacing ratio of fly ash was about 1050 °C, which is 50–100 °C higher than that of clay bricks. The properties of fired bricks were improved by using pulverized fly ash. The fired bricks with high volume ratio of fly ash were of high compressive strength, low water absorption, no cracking due to lime, no frost and high resistance to frost-melting.     

Geotechnical characterization of a clay–cement mix

Soft clay deposits are highly plastic, normally consolidated fine grained soils characterized by their low inherent shear strength. The mixing of soft clays with cement as a chemical stabilizer has become a well-known stabilization technique. The resulting strength of the clay–cement mix is controlled by different factors, but mainly the water to cement ratio, the cement content, and the curing conditions. It is crucial to develop a clear understanding of the changes in engineering behavior of the clay–cement mix that result from changes in controlling factors. A phase diagram was established to define the initial conditions of the mass–volume relationships of air, cement, clay, and water of a typical clay–cement mix. This phase diagram was then used to determine the total dry density, void ratio, and specific gravity of the clay–cement mix as a function of the cement content and water to cement ratio. The main objective of this work was to develop generalized trends for the geotechnical properties of clay–cement mixes. These trends were evaluated based on unconfined compressive strength as well as consistency tests carried out on soft clay samples before and after mixing with cement and at different curing times. A reduction in the plasticity index (PI) of 16 % and an increase in the unconfined shear strength of more than 200 kPa were obtained from the addition of 15 % cement. The reduction in the PI of the clay–cement mix was found to be an efficient tool to represent the improvement in the strength of the clay after mixing with cement.     

Hydromechanical behavior of unsaturated expansive clay under repetitive loading

Compacted layers of expansive soils are used in different engineering projects,such as subgrades,engineered clay barriers,and buffers for radioactive waste disposal.These layers are exposed to a variety of stresses and wetting conditions during field serviceability.Coupling between hydraulic and mechanical repeated loading provides insight understanding to the induced progressive deformation of expansive clay.This study was conducted to investigate the hydromechanical behavior of unsaturated compacted expansive clay under repeated loadingeunloading (RLU) conditions.Two series of onedimensional (1D) oedometer tests were conducted under controlled matric suction up to 1500 k Pa using the axis translation technique (Fredlund soil-water characteristic curve device,SWC-150).The first test series was carried out at different levels of controlled matric suction for non-repeated loading eunloading (NRLU) cycles.RLU cycles were applied in the second test series at different repetitivestress levels and under different levels of matric suction.The results indicated increasing axial wetting strain ε_a(s),axial swell pressure s_s(s),compression index C_c(s),and swell index C_s(s) with suction reduction.The estimated loadecollapse (LC) curves obtained from NRLU series (LCN) and RLU series (LCR)indicated increasing yield stress s_y(s) with increasing suction.This is attributed to the developed apparent cohesion between soil particles,which in turn rigidifies the material response.Applying repetitive loading induced a notable reduction of compression index C_c(s) at the same level of suction,whereas swell index C_s(s) seems to be independent of repetitive loading.Finally,repetitive loading exceeding initial yield stresses results in plastic hardening and,hence,enlargement of yield stress locus(i.e.LC_R curve).     

苏丹膨胀土的工程性质与处理方法

以苏丹Munga地区某输电线路岩土工程勘察项目为背景,分析了该区膨胀土的工程性质,并针对该区膨胀土的胀缩性能提出了膨胀土危害的防灾思路,建立了该区膨胀土塑性指数与液限的相关方程,对膨胀力与初始含水量的相关性进行了分析,研究成果对该地区工程建设地基基础设计及我国膨胀土的研究具有一定参考价值。     

膨胀土膨胀力的改进测定及其规律研究

通过改进的测试手段,对膨胀土膨胀力与初始含水量、初始干密度和竖向压力的相关关系及其对各因素的敏感性进行研究。结果表明,在800kPa范围内,膨胀土的膨胀力随初始干密度的增大而增加,随初始含水量和竖向压力的增大而减小;膨胀力与初始干密度和初始含水量几近呈线性关系,而与竖向压力呈半对数线性关系;影响膨胀力发挥的最大因素是干密度,其次为含水量,最后为竖向压力。     

The effect of soil mineralogy and pore fluid chemistry on the suction and swelling behavior of soils

Soil suction is one of the most important parameters for describing the moisture condition and engineering behavior of unsaturated soils. Therefore, changes in suction behavior of soils in the presence of saline waters are important for engineered barriers. The aim of this study was to determine the change in suction and swelling behavior of soils, which were exposed to salt solutions (NaCl, CaCl₂, natural seawater) with respect to distilled water. The three soil samples were gathered with different mineralogy and plasticity characteristics and tested for determining matric and total suction values and for obtaining free swelling characteristics in the presence of salt solutions. The bentonitic soil sample had the highest total suction value in the presence of seawater. Kaolinitic and zeolitic soil samples had the highest total suction values in the presence of NaCl solution. The highest modified free swell index value of the samples was obtained in the presence of NaCl solution for all the soil samples. No relationship was found between the total suction, matric suction and the modified free swell index value of the tested soils.     

膨胀土等级判别的遗传支持向量机多分类方法

针对支持向量机模型中的参数难以确定的状况,提出了遗传支持向量机方法,即利用遗传算法来搜索支持向量机与核函数的参数,避免了人为选择参数的盲目性,同时提高了支持向量机的推广预测能力,并将该方法应用于膨胀土胀缩等级的判别分类问题。考虑影响膨胀土判别的重要因素,选用液限、胀缩总率、塑性指数、天然含水量和自由膨胀率5个指标作为模型的判别因子,以4类膨胀土胀缩等级作为相应的输出,以膨胀土实测数据作为学习样本进行训练,建立相应分类函数对待判样本进行分类。研究结果表明：遗传支持向量机模型分类性能良好,预测精度高,是膨胀土     

Developing cation exchange capacity and soil index properties relationships using a neuro-fuzzy approach

Artificial intelligence methods are employed to predict cation exchange capacity (CEC) from five different soil index properties, namely specific surface area (SSA), liquid limit, plasticity index, activity (ACT), and clay fraction (CF). Artificial neural networks (ANNs) analyses were first employed to determine the most related index parameters with cation exchange capacity. For this purpose, 40 datasets were employed to train the network and 10 datasets were used to test it. The ANN analyses were conducted with 15 different input vector combinations using same datasets. As a result of this investigation, the ANN analyses revealed that SSA and ACT are the most effective parameters on the CEC. Next, based upon these most effective input parameters, the fuzzy logic (FL) model was developed for the CEC. In the developed FL model, triangular membership functions were employed for both the input (SSA and ACT) variables and the output variable (CEC). A total of nine Mamdani fuzzy rules were deduced from the datasets, used for the training of the ANN model. Minimization (min) inferencing, maximum (max) composition, and centroid defuzzification methods are employed for the constructed FL model. The developed FL model was then tested against the remaining datasets, which were also used for testing the ANN model. The prediction results are satisfactory with a determination coefficient, R ² = 0.94 and mean absolute error, (MAE) = 7.1.