Behavior-change trials to assess the feasibility of improving complementary feeding practices and micronutrient intake of infants in rural Bangladesh

This study used simple rapid-assessment techniques to test the feasibility of increasing the consumption of complementary foods by infants by asking mothers to increase meal quantity or frequency or by altering the viscosity/energy density of the food. The feasibility of using micronutrient supplements either added directly to food or administered as liquid drops was also examined. The study was conducted in rural Bangladesh and involved four separate short-term behavioral change trials. Depending on the trial, fieldworkers recruited 30 to 45 infants 6 to 12 months of age. Following recommendations to increase the amount of food provided to infants, the mean intakes from single meals increased from 40 +/- 23 g on day 1 to 64 +/- 30 g on day 7 (p < 0.05). In a second trial, the mean meal frequency increased from 2.2 +/- 1.3 on day 1 to 4.1 +/- 1.3 on day 7 (p < 0.05). Provision of high-energy-density diets, prepared by decreasing viscosity with alpha-amylase or by hand-mashing rice and dhal into a paste before feeding, increased single-meal energy consumption from 54 +/- 35 kcal to 79 +/- 52 kcal or 75 +/- 37 kcal (p < 0.05), respectively. Both types of micronutrient supplements were well accepted and used according to recommendations. In conclusion, it was possible to change short-term child-feeding behaviors to promote increased food intake, mealfrequency, energy density, and micronutrient consumption. Because each of these interventions lasted for only about 1 week, however, the long-term sustainability of these changes is not known. Moreover, the effect of increased feeding of complementary foods on intakes of breastmilk and total daily consumption of energy and nutrients requires further study.     

Effect of soy flour addition and heat-processing method on nutritional quality and consumer acceptability of cassava complementary porridges

BACKGROUND: The nutritional quality of cassava complementary porridge was improved through extrusion cooking and compositing with either defatted or full fat soy flour (65:35 w/w), and product acceptability by mothers with children of the target population was evaluated. RESULTS: The protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of extrusion‐ and conventionally cooked composite porridges was within the recommendations for complementary foods. The kinetics of starch digestibility showed that all porridges had a rapid rate of starch digestibility, but the rate was lower when defatted soy flour was added and lowest when full fat soy flour was added. The formation of amylase‐lipid complexes as shown by X‐ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry can be attributed to the lower digestibility of extrusion‐cooked porridge with full fat soy flour. If fed thrice per day, extrusion‐cooked porridge with defatted or full fat soy flour would meet the energy, protein and available lysine requirements of a child aged 6–8 months receiving low or average nutrients from breast milk. All porridges were well received by Mozambican mothers who use cassava as a staple food. The mean scores for sensory liking of all porridges were 3 and above on a five‐point hedonic scale. CONCLUSION: Extrusion‐cooked cassava/soy flour porridges have good potential for use as high‐energy/high‐protein complementary foods and have acceptable sensory properties. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Possible use of spreads as a FOODlet for improving the diets of infants and young children

Spreads are high-viscosity fat products prepared by mixing dried powdered ingredients with a vegetable fat chosen for its viscosity. Spreads are not traditionally used for feeding infants or young children and were initially proposed for feeding severely malnourished children during the recovery phase. The advantages of these products include a high energy and nutrient density, a very good acceptability, and resistance to bacterial contamination. Adapted spreads could be designed to boost the nutritional density of diets of young children from poor communities. Spreads could be mixed with the meals or porridges traditionally given to infants or eaten by themselves as snacks. Formulation of spread products is flexible, and acceptability and efficacy trials are required to optimize their composition and fortification levels and to select the best-adapted ingredients for each setting.     

An Acceptability Trial of Desiccated Beef Liver and Meat Powder as Potential Fortifiers of Complementary Diets of Young Children in Indonesia

The addition of desiccated beef liver to infant and young child complementary foods can be used to overcome nutrient deficits, however its acceptability is unknown. We conducted a series of studies to test the acceptability of complementary foods fortified with either powdered beef liver, beef meat, beef liver + meat or placebo among 96 Indonesian children aged 12 to 23 mo. This was achieved by determining liking of a single test food with added study powder, followed by a 2‐wk home trial and focus group discussions to assess liking during repeated consumption of the study powders added to daily meals. The test food with added beef powders were well liked by mothers, with liking scores never falling below neutral on a 7‐point scale. After home use, mothers reported that their children moderately liked their meals with added powder, with scores ranging between 3.3 and 3.5 on a 5‐point scale. With the exception of lower liking for the combination beef liver + meat powder, there were no detectable differences in mothers’ overall perception of child's liking between the placebo and any of the study powders. The low disappearance rate of the study powders during the home trial was a concern, with mothers reporting a strong smell and fishy odor as the major reason why children did not like their meals. Nonetheless, mothers declared they would continue using the powder on account of the nutritional value and perceived health benefits. Strategies are underway to minimize the level of fishy odor in the beef liver powder.     

Update on technical issues concerning complementary feeding of young children in developing countries and implications for intervention programs

This paper provides an update to the 1998 WHO/UNICEF report on complementary feeding. New research findings are generally consistent with the guidelines in that report, but the adoption of new energy and micronutrient requirements for infants and young children will result in lower recommendations regarding minimum meal frequency and energy density of complementary foods, and will alter the list of "problem nutrients." Without fortification, the densities of iron, zinc, and vitamin B6 in complementary foods are often inadequate, and the intake of other nutrients may also be low in some populations. Strategies for obtaining the needed amounts of problem nutrients, as well as optimizing breastmilk intake when other foods are added to the diet, are discussed. The impact of complementary feeding interventions on child growth has been variable, which calls attention to the need for more comprehensive programs. A six-step approach to planning, implementing, and evaluating such programs is recommended.     

An advisory tool to improve management practices affecting calf and heifer welfare on dairy farms

We developed an advisory tool addressing 10 critical areas of calf and heifer management, including calving management, care to newborn calves and painful procedures, colostrum management, cow-calf separation, calf feeding, weaning, calf housing, heifer feeding, heifer housing, and general monitoring. Targets and indicators for each critical area were validated by a panel of experts and maximum scores were assigned based on experts’ opinions and reviews of scientific literature. The tool was tested on 28 Quebec dairy farms for feasibility and repeatability between 2 observers. Farmers were asked to test colostrum quality, measure blood IgG concentrations, and record health events. The on-farm evaluation included an interview on management practices and an evaluation of conditions in the barn. Scorings and recommendations were discussed with producers. The usefulness of our on-farm welfare tool was evaluated by the producers themselves during a final debriefing. We reached the main goals of a successful advisory tool of calf and heifer management to improve welfare on dairy farms. We respected the targeted time limit of a 3-h visit covering all aspects of our tool including data collection on management and environment, scoring, practical demonstration with producers, and debriefing. We had no problems collecting management- and environment-based data and had high repeatability of qualitative environment-based measures (kappa value > 0.6). Our tool helped to detect problems and to discuss these problems with the producers; producers scored below 50% for some targets in calving management, care to newborn calves and painful procedures, colostrum management, and calf feeding. The targets were realistic so producers were not discouraged. All producers were convinced of the usefulness of our tool for identifying areas of calf and heifer management in need of improvement. They were also convinced of the usefulness of our tool as an advisory tool for technical advisors and veterinarians. Six months after the on-farm visit, recommended practices were implemented in many of these areas. Voluntary improvements in animal welfare can be facilitated by using appropriate tools to educate producers and help them change their attitudes toward calf management and animal welfare.     

An investigation of flavor complexity and food neophobia

The Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) measures reluctance to try novel foods. In describing foods, the term complexity is not well defined. The objective of this work was to assess the acceptability of familiar and novel foods, with varying levels of flavor complexity in both salty and sweet foods, by food neophobics and neophilics and to assess the effect of expectation (frame-of-reference effect) and familiarity on the acceptability of foods. FNS was administered to 864 subjects, who were classified to neophobic, or neophilic based on their FNS scores. Experiment 1, which was replicated twice, focused on four familiar foods, prepared in two versions, an original version and a more flavorful version. Subjects rated foods on complexity, acceptability and expectation. Neophilics gave significantly higher acceptability ratings to complex foods than bland foods and vice versa for neophobics. The different versions of foods did not always meet panelists’ flavor expectations. Experiment 2 included eight commercial foods, four salty and four sweet, with two novel and two familiar foods used within each taste category/quality. One of the foods within the familiar or novel pairs was expected to be flavorful (e.g. chili is typically served as spicy) and the other expected to be bland. Subjects rated foods on complexity, acceptability, familiarity and expectation. Six out of the eight flavorful versions of foods were chosen by subjects as more complex. Significant factors were taste quality, novelty, expectation, and familiarity (p < 0.05). Overall, neophilics were more accepting of novel foods than neophobics. The significant interaction between expectation and neophobia suggests that neophobics and neophilics may have different expectations of foods. Although neophobia × complexity was not significant, the neophobics’ acceptability ratings for bland versions were higher than for the flavorful versions.     

What do Québec children eat during their first six months?

Study objectives were to describe the introduction of foods and beverages and the use of vitamin and/or mineral supplements among infants aged six months, and to identify factors associated with following Québec recommendations on introducing foods and beverages. Study subjects were primiparous women interviewed by phone when their infants were approximately six months old. Data were gathered on foods and beverages offered to infants, the age at which these were introduced, and supplements. The use of each food, beverage, and supplement was evaluated according to recommendations. Mean age at which foods were introduced and proportions of women who followed recommendations were calculated. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to identify the factors associated with following recommendations. Results indicated that among the 1,937 interviewed mothers, 212 (10.9%) exclusively breast-fed their infants before age four months, 1,073 (55.4%) breast-fed their infants at birth but gave them formula or foods before age four months, and 652 (33.7%) formula-fed their infants at birth. Factors associated with adherence to recommendations were breast-feeding exclusively, being older than 30 years, an annual family income of at least 60,000 dollars, and being a non-smoker. Few mothers followed all the recommendations.     

Infant-feeding practices and beliefs about complementary feeding among low-income Brazilian mothers: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding and weaning practices are important determinants of growth and development not only in infancy but also later in life. OBJECTIVE: To describe infant-feeding practices and beliefs about complementary feeding among low-income Brazilian mothers. METHODS: Qualitative methods included focus group discussions with low-income mothers enrolled in a Family Health/Community Health Workers program in Ceará, Northeast Brazil. RESULTS: Breastfeeding is widely practiced in this area, and overall, mothers are knowledgeable about the benefits of breastfeeding for their infants and themselves. Practices of prolonged breastfeeding and delayed supplementation of infants with semisolid foods emerged as a problem among very poor women. In addition, the results showed common problems related to complementary feeding practices, such as the early introduction of solid foods and the use of expensive commercial cereals and formula for weaning. Cultural factors and taboos appeared to have an important influence on mothers' infant-feeding practices and eating patterns of their children. CONCLUSIONS: The results have implications for the design of breastfeeding promotion and interventions to improve complementary feeding. Improvements of the national Food Grant Program are also suggested, which are needed by low-income mothers to improve their infant-feeding practices.     

The sensory acceptance of fibre‐enriched cereal foods: a meta‐analysis

Improved understanding of the sensory responses to fibre fortification may assist manufacturers and health promotion efforts. The effects of fibre fortification (or modified ingredients) on sensory acceptability of baked cereal foods (bread, cookies, muffins) were estimated by linear random‐effects meta‐analysis of twenty eligible studies (869 panellists, 34% male). As little as 2 g per 100 g fortification caused moderate–large reductions in overall acceptability, flavour acceptability, and appearance acceptability in most items, with cookies most negatively affected. Fortification of base nonfortified foods with low initial acceptability improved acceptability; however, at higher basic levels, fortification lowered acceptability. Fortification improved texture acceptability of muffins and bread with low base acceptability, but lowered texture acceptability when base acceptability was high. Flavour improvement of muffins with fortification decreased with increasing base food acceptability. Fibre fortification of baked cereal foods lowers acceptability, but food format and base food acceptability affect the magnitude and direction of responses. Refining fibre fortification approaches could improve consumer uptake.     

Development of weaning food from sorghum supplemented with legumes and oil seeds

BACKGROUND: The development of low-cost, high-protein food supplements for weaning infants from local and readily available raw materials is a constant challenge for developing countries. OBJECTIVE: To formulate, develop, and assess the nutritive value, acceptability, and keeping quality of sorghum-based staple dried flakes as instant weaning foods. METHODS: Weaning blends composed of 42% sorghum supplemented with 20% legumes, 10% oil seeds, and 28% additives (sugar, oil, skim milk powder, and vanillin) were prepared according to FAO/WHO/UNU recommendations and processed in a twin-roller drum dryer. The effects of fermentation and of the addition of malt on the nutritive value and functional properties of the blends were investigated. RESULTS: The blends were found to contain 16.6% to 19.3% protein, 68.7% to 72.7% carbohydrate, 0.9% to 1.3% fiber, and 405.8 to 413.2 kcal of energy per 100 g. The iron content of the blends ranged from 5.3 to 9.1 mg/100 g, and the calcium content ranged from 150 to 220 mg/100 g. All blends reconstituted well and formed a soft paste when stirred with hot or cold water. The water-holding capacity, wettability, and bulk density were within the ranges of corresponding values of commercial weaning foods. Sensory attributes, viscosity values, and in vitro digestibility varied among the blends, whereas lysing content improved considerably (p < or = .05) for all blends. All blends had similar keeping quality, with no signs of spoilage or development of off-flavors or colors after 10 months of storage. Most blends remained free of aflatoxins. CONCLUSIONS: Legumes and oil seeds can be effectively used in sorghum-based weaning foods as an acceptable protein and mineral supplement.     

Optimizing the diet with whole grains

Dietary recommendations may be perceived by the general population as causing a shift to less food and perhaps to less aesthetically pleasing foods often resulting in noncompliance. Technology can play a key role in this scenario by creating new formulated foods as well as by utilizing technology to modify whole foods or foods containing whole foods and enhancing both their health benefits and acceptability. At present we have evidence for a positive role in health of nutrients and many nonnutrients in foods, such as whole grains. However, all the linkages between dietary components and disease are not clear. Therefore, it is critical to design not only appealing formulated foods, but to also ensure adequate consumption of whole foods in order to obtain those compounds we know to be linked to good health, as well as those yet‐unknown compounds or interactions in food that are also linked to good health. In all cases, the technical and functional properties of food, as well as the nutritional, must be considered in order to optimize acceptability and assist in achieving compliance in meeting dietary recommendations.     

Weaning foods and their impact on child-feeding practices among low-income Nigerian mothers

BACKGROUND: Many children in rural communities of developing countries die of nutrition-related causes due to lack of nutrition education and low purchasing power of the families, which result in low-quality weaning foods and poor feeding practices. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the nutritional composition of local weaning foods and their impact on child feeding practices among low-income Nigerian mothers. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted between March and June 2005 among 294 randomly selected pairs of nursing mothers and their children who attended the postnatal clinic of State Specialist Hospital and Comprehensive Health Centers in Akure community, Ondo State, Nigeria. A structured, self-or interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect information on infant demographic characteristics, feeding, and socioeconomic characteristics of the parents. The children's weights were recorded, and samples of the weaning foods were analyzed. RESULTS: The mothers' ages ranged from 22 to 37 years, and the children's from one to 12 months. Among the parents, two-fifths of the respondents worked as drivers, mechanics, carpenters, and the like, while the remaining respondents were civil servants, health professionals, teachers, merchants, and housewives. The educational attainment of the parents ranged from no formal education (1.4%) to higher education (46%); 13% had completed primary school, and 39.6% had completed secondary school. The average monthly family income was between 3,500 and 30,000 naira (US dollar 23.3-dollar 200). Among the children, 58.3% were of normal weight, 41.1% were mildly underweight, 0.3% moderately underweight, and 0.3% severely underweight; 23.1% were exclusively breastfed, 9.5% received breastmilk and traditional medicinal herbs, 15.6% received breastmilk and commercial weaning food, 7.4% received commercial weaning food only, 14.8% received local weaning foods only, 24.1% received local weaning foods plus breastmilk, and 5.8% received the family diet. CONCLUSIONS: We found that a high proportion of the nursing mothers used local ingredients to formulate weaning foods for their babies. The nutritional compositions of these foods is of high quality and are suitable as weaning foods, particularly for infants of low-income parents who do not have access to commercial weaning foods.     

Donated fortified cereal blends improve the nutrient density of traditional complementary foods in Haiti, but iron and zinc gaps remain for infants

This research assesses whether fortified cereal blends such as corn-soy blend (CSB) or wheat-soy (WSB) blend can significantly contribute to improving the quality of the diet of infants and young children 6 to 23 months of age. A series of participatory recipe trials was conducted to assess current complementary feeding practices in the Central Plateau of Haiti and to develop new, improved recipes by using a combination of locally available ingredients and foods and donated fortified cereal blends. Our findings show that it is feasible to improve the nutritional quality of complementary foods in poor rural areas of Haiti, using locally available ingredients and fortified cereal blends. Significant improvements in the concentrations of vitamin A could be obtained by including acceptable and affordable amounts of locally available vitamin A-rich foods such as pumpkin or eggs. Only preparations using CSB, however, could achieve the recommended concentrations of iron and zinc in complementary foods, and even this was achievable only for 12- to 23-month-old children. For infants, and especially those between 6 and 8 months of age, the high requirements of 7.7 mg of iron and 1.6 mg of zinc per 100 kcal of complementary foods could not be met, even with a combination of fortified CSB and other locally available, acceptable, and affordable foods. The same was true for the zinc density of complementary foods among 9- to 11-month-old children, which could not be achieved even with fortified CSB. Thus, in this population, fortified cereal blends were key to achieving the recommended iron and zinc densities of complementary foods for children 12 to 23 months of age, but they were not sufficient for infants. Complementary approaches, such as improving the availability, access, and intake of animal-source foods or the use of home fortification techniques (using spreads, sprinkles, or dispersible tablets), are needed to ensure adequate iron and zinc density of complementary foods for infants younger than 12 months in resource-constrained environments such as rural Haiti.     

A review of the methodology for assessing in vivo antioxidant capacity

Oxidative stress and antioxidant deficiency have been implicated in the pathophysiology of a wide range of diseases and conditions. Consequently, over recent years many different supplementation trials have been implemented, aimed at improving clinical outcomes by boosting antioxidant levels. These trials have included supplementation with individual antioxidants, antioxidant combinations and antioxidant‐rich foods, such as fruit and vegetable juices and other plant extracts. To ensure data from these trials is interpreted correctly, it is essential that suitable biomarkers are used to assess changes in in vivo antioxidant activity resulting from supplementation. This review discusses methods for measuring antioxidant activity, including direct measurement of antioxidant concentrations and assays for measuring overall reducing capacity. Antioxidant activity can also be indirectly assessed by monitoring levels of oxidative stress. This review describes biomarkers that can be used to assess oxidative damage to lipids (including F2‐isoprostanes, malondialdehyde, 4‐hydroxy‐2‐nonenal, and the hydrocarbons, ethane and pentane), protein (including protein carbonyls and nitrotyrosine) and DNA (via 8‐hydroxydeoxyguanosine assay). Direct measurement of free radicals is also discussed. Useful information is provided for researchers planning animal and human intervention trials involving antioxidant‐rich foods or supplements, including plant extracts. The development and use of appropriate methodologies is essential if the role of antioxidant supplementation in various diseases and conditions is to be understood. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Sensorial evaluation of nutritional supplements (PROGRESA) enriched with 3 different forms of iron in a rural Mexican community

ABSTRACT:  As part of the efforts to reduce iron deficiency anemia (IDA), the Mexican Federal program PROGRESA distributes complementary foods to toddlers and pregnant women living in extreme poverty. Complementary foods were originally fortified with hydrogen-reduced iron, which proved a limited efficacy. The supplement was reformulated to provide higher iron bioavailability. This investigation aims to assess the sensory changes and the acceptance of new versions of the complementary foods fortified with either reduced iron, ferrous fumarate, or ferrous sulfate, stored at room temperature for 2, 4, and 6 mo. Complementary foods were presented without flavor (plain) or flavored with either chocolate or vanilla. The complementary foods were evaluated in toddlers and their mothers using a hedonic scale. The percentage of overall acceptance for the baby foods was higher in toddlers (80% to 88%) than in their mothers (63% to 68%). The complementary foods with a better acceptance were those fortified with reduced iron (63% to 68%) and ferrous fumarate (61% to 80%) independently of the flavoring added. The acceptance of the beverage intended for women was better for those fortified with reduced iron (52% to 63%) or ferrous fumarate (44% to 63%) in their vanilla-flavored version. For women, the most accepted sources of iron were reduced iron (50% to 60%) and ferrous fumarate (50% to 58%).     

A comparison of mothers' knowledge,attitudes, and utilization in relation to soybeans and cowpeas for child feeding in a Nigerian rural area

This study assessed rural mothers' knowledge of, attitudes toward, and use of soybeans as compared with cowpeas for feeding their young children. Mothers who had at least one child below the age of five years in 239 sampled households were interviewed. The results indicate that mothers were well informed about the value of giving both foods to their young children. A comparison of attitudes shows that the mothers had a more favorable opinion of cowpeas and that they used cowpeas more than soybeans. Mothers' reasons for using both foods include nutritive value, affordability, and palatability, in that order. Cowpeas were favored for ease of preparation. More mothers introduced cowpeas to their children before the age of six than soybeans.     

Estimates of genetic parameters for feeding behavior traits and their associations with feed efficiency in Holstein cows

Residual feed intake (RFI) is commonly used to measure feed efficiency but individual intake recording systems are needed. Feeding behavior may be used as an indicator trait for feed efficiency using less expensive precision livestock farming technologies. Our goal was to estimate genetic parameters for feeding behavior and the genetic correlations with feed efficiency in Holstein cows. Data consisted of 75,877 daily feeding behavior records of 1,328 mid-lactation Holstein cows in 31 experiments conducted from 2009 to 2020 with an automated intake recording system. Feeding behavior traits included number of feeder visits per day, number of meals per day, duration of each feeder visit, duration of each meal, total duration of feeder visits, intake per visit, intake per meal [kg of dry matter (DM)], feeding rate per visit, and feeding rate per meal (kg of DM per min). The meal criterion was estimated as 26.4 min, which means that any pair of feeder visits separated by less than 26.4 min were considered part of the same meal. The statistical model included lactation and days in milk as fixed effects, and experiment-treatment, animal, and permanent environment as random effects. Genetic parameters for feeding behavior traits were estimated using daily records and weekly averages. Estimates of heritability for daily feeding behavior traits ranged from 0.09 ± 0.02 (number of meals; mean ± standard error) to 0.23 ± 0.03 (feeding rate per meal), with repeatability estimates ranging from 0.23 ± 0.01 (number of meals) to 0.52 ± 0.02 (number of feeder visits). Estimates of heritability for weekly averages of feeding behavior traits ranged from 0.19 ± 0.04 (number of meals) to 0.32 ± 0.04 (feeding rate per visit), with repeatability estimates ranging from 0.46 ± 0.02 (duration of each meal) to 0.62 ± 0.02 (feeding rate per visit and per meal). Most of the feeding behavior measures were strongly genetically correlated, showing that with more visits or meals per day, cows spend less time in each feeder visit or meal with lower intake per visit or meal. Weekly averages for feeding behavior traits were analyzed jointly with RFI and its components. Number of meals was genetically correlated with milk energy (0.48), metabolic body weight (?0.27), and RFI (0.19). Duration of each feeder visit and meal were genetically correlated with milk energy (0.43 and 0.44, respectively). Total duration of feeder visits per day was genetically correlated with DM intake (0.29), milk energy (0.62), metabolic body weight (?0.37), and RFI (0.20). Intake per visit and meal were genetically correlated with DM intake (0.63 and 0.87), milk energy (0.47 and 0.69), metabolic body weight (0.47 and 0.68), and RFI (0.31 and 0.65). Feeding rate was genetically correlated with DM intake (0.69), metabolic body weight (0.67), RFI (0.47), and milk energy (0.21). We conclude that measures of feeding behavior could be useful indicators of dairy cow feed efficiency, and individual cows that eat at a slower rate may be more feed efficient.     

Constraints on good child-care practices and nutritional status in urban Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania

BACKGROUND: Care is increasingly being recognized as a crucial input to child health and nutrition, along with food security, availability of health services, and a healthy environment. Although significant gains have been made in the fight against malnutrition in Tanzania, the nutritional status of preschool children in urban areas is not improving. OBJECTIVE: To assess child-care practices and the nutritional status of infants and young children with the aim of improvingfeeding practices and child nutritional status. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was undertaken in urban Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. The study involved 100 randomly selected mothers of children 6 to 24 months old from households in Ilala Municipality, one of the three municipalities that constitute the Dar-es-Salaam City Council. Data were collected by a structured questionnaire, spot-check observations, and anthropometric measurements. RESULTS: The prevalence rates of stunting, underweight, wasting, and morbidity were 43%, 22%, 3%, and 80%, respectively. The prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding was very low (9%), and most stunted children (88%) were not exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months. The mean age at which complementary foods and fluids were introduced was 3.26 +/- 1.12 months (range, 1 to 5 months). The fluids given were mainly water and thin cereal-based porridge. More than half of the households practiced good hygiene. Most of the psychosocial practices (e.g., caregiver's attention, affection, and involvement in child feeding, hygiene, health care, and training) were performed by mothers, except for cooking and feeding the children and child training, which were done mostly by alternative caregivers. Nearly half of the mothers (44%) worked out of the home. The mean number of working hours per day was long (10.32 +/- 2.13), necessitating the use of alternative caregivers. A negative correlation was found between height-for-age z-scores and the number of hours mothers worked outside the home. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence rates of chronic malnutrition and morbidity are high, and child-feeding practices are inadequate in this urban population. Maternal employment and educational characteristics constrain good child-care practices, and alternative caregivers are taking a more important role in child care as mothers join the work force. We recommend that formative research be conducted to study the actual practices of caregivers in order to form the basis for a child-care education program. There is also a need to strengthen national health system support for improved child feeding.     

Improved energy prediction equations for dairy cattle rations

The objective was to develop equations that would accurately predict energy contents of rations commonly fed to milking cows and that were simple to apply. Six published equations that predicted TDN from ration content of crude fiber or ADF or predicted digestible energy, metabolize energy, or NE(1) from ration ADF content were modified to remove bias caused by dietary fiber contents. The modified equation that predicted metabolizable energy from ADF was tested for accuracy using data from several feeding trials in which DM intakes and dietary ADF contents were known. Dietary metabolizable energy content calculated by the equation was multiplied by DM consumed to obtain metabolizable energy intake. Requirement of dietary metabolizable energy was calculated using factors for maintenance, milk produced, and BW changes from 1988 NRC feeding standard. Concurrence values (energy intake/energy required) from feeding trials were calculated and served as the criterion of equation accuracy. Several trials resulted in concurrence values approximating 1.0, indicating that the equation to predict dietary metabolizable content was accurate. However, values for individual trials ranged from .84 to 1.21. Concurrence values that deviated considerably from 1.0 occurred most frequently in trials in which animals experienced negative or large changes in BW. It appeared that errors may have occurred in calculating energy requirements when BW changes were negative or large. It was concluded that the modification improved the original equation and it probably was accurate. The other modified equations would be expected to be equally accurate.