Retrospective radon progeny measurements through measurements of Po activities on glass objects using stacked LR 115 detectors

A stacked LR 115 detector consisting of two active layers was proposed for determining ²¹⁰Po activity in glass surfaces after deposition of short-lived radon progeny. The sensitivities of both active layers were calculated. Two glass samples were exposed in a chamber to determine the experimental calibration factors for the radon gas and progeny, which were then compared with the theoretical calibration factors from simulations. The experimental and the simulated calibration factors for radon progeny agreed well. The discrepancy between the calibration factors for radon gas was due to a much higher equilibrium factor used in the experimental calibration than the nominal value assumed in the simulation. A mini-survey of contemporary and retrospective radon progeny concentrations was carried out at 10 residential sites. A relationship between contemporary and retrospective radon progeny concentrations was not readily observable.     

Sensitivity of LR 115 SSNTD in a diffusion chamber

Solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTDs), such as LR 115, have been commonly used in diffusion chambers for long-term measurements of radon gas concentrations. For the LR 115 SSNTD, it has been found that the active layer removed during chemical etching is significantly affected by the presence and amount of stirring, and thus cannot be controlled easily. However, the sensitivity of the LR 115 detector inside a diffusion chamber to the radon and/or thoron gas concentration is dependent on the actual removed active layer thickness. This relationship is dependant on the geometry of the diffusion chamber and the deposition fraction of ²¹⁸Po in the diffusion chamber, as well as the V function for the LR 115 detector (V is the ratio between the track etch velocity V_t to the bulk etch velocity V_b). This paper presents the experimentally determined relationships between the sensitivity of the LR 115 detector inside a Karlsruhe diffusion chamber and the removed active layer thickness, for both radon and thoron. A V function was adjusted to simulate the relationships. In particular, for the case of ²²²Rn, we have found f ∼ 0.5, where f is the fraction of ²¹⁸Po which decays inside the diffusion chamber before deposition onto available inner surfaces of the chamber. In conclusion, we have found that the sensitivities critically depend on the actual removed active layer thickness, so this should be monitored and used in determining the sensitivities.     

Long-term measurements of equilibrium factor with electrochemically etched CR-39 SSNTD

Recently, our group proposed a method (proxy equilibrium factor method) using a bare LR 115 detector for long-term monitoring of the equilibrium factor. Due to the presence of an upper alpha-particle energy threshold for track formation in the LR 115 detector, the partial sensitivities to ²²²Rn, ²¹⁸Po and ²¹⁴Po were the same, which made possible measurements of a proxy equilibrium factor F_p that was well correlated with the equilibrium factor. In the present work, the method is extended to CR-39 detectors which have better-controlled etching properties but do not have an upper energy threshold. An exposed bare CR-39 detector is first pre-etched in 6.25 N NaOH solution at 70 °C for 6 h, and then etched electrochemically in a 6.25 N NaOH solution with ac voltage of 400 V (peak to peak) and 5 kHz applied across the detectors for 1 h at room temperature. Under these conditions, for tracks corresponding to incident angles larger than or equal to 50°, the treeing efficiency is 0% and 100% for incident energies smaller than and larger than 4 MeV, respectively. A simple method is then proposed to obtain the total number of tracks formed below the upper energy threshold of 4 MeV, from which the proxy equilibrium factor method can apply.     

Simple preparation of thin CR-39 detectors for alpha-particle radiobiological experiments

Alpha-particle radiobiological experiments involve irradiating cells with alpha particles and require accurate positions where the alpha particles hit the cells. In the present work, we prepared thin CR-39 detectors from commercially available CR-39 SSNTDs with a thickness of 100 μm by etching them in 1 N NaOH/ethanol at 40 °C to below 20 μm. The desired final thickness was achieved within ∼8 h. Such etching conditions can provide relatively small roughness of the detector as revealed by atomic force microscope, and thus provide transparent detectors for radiobiological experiments. UV radiation was employed to shorten track formation time on these thin CR-39 detectors. After exposure to UV light (UVA + B radiation) for 2-3 h with doses from 259 to 389 W/cm², 5 MeV alpha-particle tracks can be seen to develop on these CR-39 detectors clearly under the optical microscope within 2 h in 14 N KOH at 37 °C. As an example for practical use, custom-made petri dishes, with a hole drilled at the bottom and covered with a thin CR-39 detector, were used for culturing HeLa cells. The feasibility of using these thin CR-39 detectors is demonstrated by taking photographs of the cells and alpha-particle tracks together under the optical microscope, which can allow the hit positions on the cells by the alpha particles to be determined accurately.     

Optical appearance of alpha particle tracks in CR-39 SSNTD

A ray tracing method based on geometrical optics was used to study the tracks from alpha particles with different energies and with an incident angle of 50°. The transmission operation mode of the microscope is simulated. Considering the distribution of light intensities from the tracks, the mean and the 80% percentile gray levels from real experiments are proposed as quantitative variables to differentiate among tracks. The gray level properties for the same track for different exposures can vary to large extents. We introduce three variables, κ, λ and ε, to make empirical corrections. It is interesting to see that these coefficients are very consistent for the same alpha particle track despite the very different gray level properties. Gray level results have been obtained for tracks from alpha particles with 50° incident angle and different incident energies. However, the track depths cannot be predicted by any one of the coefficients κ, λ and ε. Multivariate analyses can help separate the tracks corresponding to different alpha energies. By using discriminant analysis with κ, λ and ε as independents, effectively all alpha energies can be determined with an accuracy of ±0.5 MeV.     

Bulk and track etch properties of CR-39 SSNTD etched in NaOH/ethanol

Recently, Matiullah et al. described the use of NaOH/ethanol as an etchant for the CR-39 detector, and have determined the corresponding bulk and track etch properties from the track diameter method. In the present work, the bulk and track etch properties of CR-39 in NaOH/ethanol were derived from direct measurements. The bulk etch rate has been found to increase with the molarity of NaOH/ethanol, reach a maximum at ∼2.5 N and start to drop beyond 3 N. The bulk etch rate also increases with stirring. These phenomena can be explained by the insulation of the detector from the etchant by the etched products. Regarding the track etch, we have found a surprising result that the lengths of (pre-etched) tracks are actually shortened when the tracks are etched in NaOH/ethanol. Generally speaking, the remaining track depths obtained with stirring are longer than those for no stirring. The shortening of the tracks can be explained by the insulation of the pre-etched track wall from the etchant with the etched products.     

Determination of alpha-particle track depths in CR-39 detector from their cross-sections and replica heights

A challenging task in the application of solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTDs) is the measurement of depths of the tracks. One approach involves breaking and polishing the side of SSNTDs to reveal the cross-sections of the tracks for direct measurements. Recently, surface profilometry was used to measure the heights of the replicas of alpha-particle tracks to give the track depths. In the present work, systematic comparisons among the track depths for alpha-particles with normal incidence and different incident energies were made for these two methods. After irradiation, the detectors were etched in a 6.25 N aqueous solution of NaOH at 70 °C. Both long etching time of 15 h (to produce spherical-phase tracks) and short etching time from 1 to 8 h (to produce sharp-phase tracks) were used. Good agreement was achieved between the two methods for spherical-phase tracks but not for sharp-phase tracks. It has been found that the surface profilometry method only works for replicas for spherical-phase tracks. Replicas for sharp-phase tracks are easier to collapse or deform, so the surface profilometry method may not give correct results.     

Comparative studies of etching mechanisms of CR-39 in NaOH/H2O and NaOH/ethanol

The bulk etch rate for CR-39 in NaOH/ethanol was faster than those in aqueous solution of NaOH (NaOH/H₂O). Furthermore, a layer of precipitate always accumulates on the surface of CR-39 detector during etching in NaOH/ethanol, which is absent during etching in NaOH/H₂O. In the present work, mass spectrometry results have shown that the same etched products are present in the etchants of NaOH/H₂O and NaOH/ethanol after etching of CR-39. This shows that CR-39 has the same etching mechanism in both etchants. These etched products support the etching mechanism of scission of the carbonate ester bond in CR-39 by the hydroxide ion through basic hydrolysis of ester. The difference in the bulk etch rates can be explained in terms of the solubility of the etched products in the etchants. FTIR analyses of the solute formed from the etchants show the formation of allyl alcohol and carbonate during etching in both etchants. The FTIR spectra of the precipitate formed at the surface of CR-39 detectors during etching in NaOH/ethanol has also shown that sodium carbonate is present in the precipitate. Finally, XRD analyses of the solute formed from the etchants show the formation of sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate in the etchant of NaOH/H₂O after etching and the formation of the mineral natrite and thermonatrite in the etchant of NaOH/ethanol as well as in the layer of precipitate on the surface of the CR-39 detector formed during etching in NaOH/ethanol.     

The detector system of the BigSol spectrometer at Texas A & M

The detector system used at the first focus of the BigSol superconducting solenoid beam line at the Texas A & M superconducting cyclotron is presented. The system is composed of a position sensitive PPAC followed by an ionization chamber (IC) with a YAP(Ce) array in its back plane. The position sensitivity of the PPAC as well the energy resolution of the IC is investigated as a function of the counting rate. Pulse height, pulse height resolution and time resolution of the YAP(Ce) crystals are studied for a variety of heavy ion beams ranging from ²⁰Ne to ¹⁹⁷Au at energies from 15 AMeV to 40 AMeV. The pulse shape discrimination method using a Flash ADC is also explored, in order to identify decay products (alpha particles and electron/gamma) from the fragments implanted in the scintillator.     

A comparative study of the various nuclear radiations used for void fraction measurements

Analytical and experimental studies are presented for comparing beta particles, gamma rays, neutrons and X-rays used for void fraction measurements in two-phase, air-water systems. It was found that the relative statistical error in void fraction was the least when using beta particles, neutrons and gamma rays consecutively. X-rays exhibited a behavior between gamma and beta.     

高氡背景下人工核素气溶胶快速监测装置

在地下洞库、坑道或地下核设施,尤其是处在花岗岩地带的地下设施,其环境中的氡及其子体产物的浓度可高达10^3～10^4Bq／m^3,它们将严重干扰人工核素（例如U、Pu）气溶胶的监测,甚至会造成测量失效,这是多年来急待解决的问题。为此,研制了一种新型气溶胶监测装置。该装置适用于在花岗岩坑道内氡水平较高的环境中测量低水平的铀、钚气溶胶浓度,并具有灵敏高、探测速度快的优点。该监测装置也可用于核设施工作场所及气态排出流中气溶胶的快速连续监测。     

Characterisation of a pre-cell hit detector to be used in single cell irradiation experiments at the Lund Nuclear Microprobe

This paper describes the characterisation of an ultra-thin silicon semiconductor ΔE detector to be used as a pre-cell ion hit detector in single ion experiments on individual, living cells. The characteristics of interest for this specific application are the hit detection efficiency, which has to be close to 100% to enable bombardment with either a single ion or a counted number of ions, the beam spreading, which should be as small as possible to maintain the targeting accuracy, and the vacuum tightness, since the detector is intended, if possible, to be used simultaneously as vacuum window. The hit detection efficiency was shown to be above 99% when detecting alpha particles or 2 MeV protons, the increase in beam size was about 1 μm and the vacuum tightness was comparable to that of the Si₃N₄ wafer which is normally used as vacuum window, thus the ΔE detector fulfils the main criteria to function properly as a single ion hit detector.     

PIXE characterization of CsI(Tl) scintillators used for particle detection in nuclear reactions

Particle-Induced X-ray Emission has been used to measure Thallium concentration in several CsI(Tl) scintillators from different manufacturers, in order to check their nominal declared values and correlate their behaviour with actual Tl concentration. Indeed, both Tl doping level and its uniformity affect light emission of these detectors, which are largely employed in nuclear physics experiments.In some of the examined crystals Tl concentration values from PIXE measurements came out to be quite different from those declared. This allowed us to explain apparent anomalies in the trend of their α/γ-induced light yield ratio versus Tl content. In some cases, the presence of unexpected contaminants was also pointed out.     

In-situ measurement via the flow-through method and numerical simulations for radon exhalation during measurements of the radon exhalation rate

Small-scale measurements of the radon exhalation rate using the flow-through and closed-loop methods were conducted on the surface of a uranium tailing pond to better understand the differences between the two methods.An abnormal radon exhalation behavior was observed,leading to computational fluid dynamics(CFD)-based simulations in which dynamic radon migration in a porous medium and accumulation chamber was considered.Based on the in-situ experimental and numeri-cal simulation results,variations in the radon exhalation rate subject to permeability,flow rate,and insertion depth were quantified and analyzed.The in-situ radon exhalation rates measured using the flow-through method were higher than those measured using the closed-loop method,which could be explained by the negative pressure difference between the inside and outside of the chamber during the measurements.The consistency of the variations in the radon exhalation rate between the experiments and simulations suggests the reliability of CFD-based techniques in obtaining the dynamic evolution of transient radon exhalation rates for diffusion and convection at the porous medium-air interface.The synergistic effects of the three factors(insertion depth,flow rate,and permeability)on the negative pressure difference and measured exhalation rate were quantified,and multivariate regression models were established,with positive correlations in most cases;the exhalation rate decreased with increasing insertion depth at a permeability of 1 × 10-11 m2.CFD-based simulations can provide theoretical guidance for improving the flow-through method and thus achieve accurate measurements.     

The determination of the diffusion coefficient of radon in a porous material by injecting radon and measuring the exhalation

A means of measuring the diffusion coefficient of radon in a porous medium has been developed and demonstrated. It is applicable whether or not the medium has a distributed radon source. Radon exhalation is measured from a pair of parallel, planar surfaces as a function of time after the sample has been externally impregnated with radon and, if a distributed source is present, after the sample has developed its own radon. The exhalation has been measured by means of grab samples taken with small, flow-through scintillation cells. The method is free of approximations within the limits of the model. The model includes the porosity of the medium, the adsorption of radon on the solid matrix, and the radon absorption on any pore moisture.     

含氡放射性水体氡析出规律的理论研究

利用氡扩散运移理论,建立了水体内氡迁移的一维微分方程,推导了水中氡浓度及水体表面氡析出率的计算公式;研究了水底射气介质氡析出率、氡传输速率、水中氡扩散系数以及水体深度等参数对水中氡浓度和水体表面氡析出率的影响。结果表明:在其他参数保持不变时,(1)同一深度处的水中氡浓度和水体表面氡析出率均随水底射气介质氡析出率的增大而增大;(2)同一深度处的水中氡浓度随氡传输速率的增大而减小,而水体表面氡析出率随氡传输速率的增大而增大,且当氡传输速率大于1×10-6m/s时,氡传输速率的变化对水体表面氡析出率的影响不明显;(3)同一深度处的水中氡浓度和水体表面氡析出率均随水中氡扩散系数的增大而增大;(4)水体表面处的水中氡浓度和水体表面氡析出率均随水体深度的增大而减小。     

某矿山222Rn及其子体污染的调查

介绍了2005～2007年用DHZM-I型氡及其子体连续监测仪对某矿山的工作场所和生活区分别进行环境氡及其子体浓度的测量。监测结果表明,所监测的工作场所中,大部分监测点的氡及其子体浓度都在国家规定的限值范围内;在居民区,扣除本底后,未发现任何监测点的个人有效剂量当量超过国家规定的限值。笔者还对该矿山的平衡因子进行了分析研究,并给出了研究结果。