Intermale sexual effect elicited by volatile urinary ether extract inMicrocebus murinus (Prosimian,Primates)

The effect of volatiles of diethyl ether-extracted dominant male mouse lemur urine on conspeciflc testosterone plasma concentrations was determined in an apparatus permitting olfactory isolation of the experimental subjects. Two experimental groups were exposed to air odorized with either ether or aqueous extracts of dominant male urine, while a third group received nonodorant air. Testosterone concentrations were measured before, during, and after the period of stimulation. The group submitted to the lipid fraction of dominant urine (N = 15) showed a significant decrease in testosterone concentrations. In contrast, no difference was observed between the group submitted to the aqueous fraction (N = 10) and the controls (N = 11). This physiological effect, which occurs in response to conditions of persistent stress, appears to be due to lipophilic components present in the urine of dominant males. The results are discussed in terms of the social structure of this primitive primate species.     

Chemical Characterization of Urinary Pheromones in Brown Antechinus, Antechinus stuartii

In the small dasyurid marsupial, Antechinus stuartii, males exhibit scent-marking in the form of cloacal marking of nesting areas during the breeding season. Females of this species show no such behavior. To characterize the potential male pheromonal scent signal, urine-derived volatiles from sexually active males were analyzed by GC-MS and compared to that of females and a castrated male. More than 10 urinary compounds were identified. A series of homologous methylketones was observed in both males and females, whereas aldehydes were present only in female urine. Urine from the castrate was virtually compound-free except for minute concentrations of a compound tentatively identified as 2,4-dithiapentane. This compound was also found in one of the sexually active males. The GC profiles of the sexually active males contained high concentrations of two pyrazine derivatives and four methylketones that were not detected in the profiles of either females or the castrate. These compounds may influence social communication in the brown antechinus, Antechinus stuartii.     

Demonstration of an odorous intramale primer effect in short-tailed vole,Microtus agrestis L.

Anal (proctodeal) glands of maleMicrotus agrestis housed in social isolation undergo severe atrophy. Their weight and volume is significantly lower than those of the stock control males. The atrophied glands can be revived by subjecting deprived voles to various social odors. Atrophied glands of isolated males do not respond to the odors of male and female urine, voided feces of females, and unvoided feces of males. Atrophied anal glands of males exposed to voided male feces (which have passed the orifice of the anal gland) and soiled bedding from adult males show strong recrudescence. The mean weight and volume of the glands and plasma testosterone level are significantly higher than of males maintained in complete social isolation, although they are significantly less than those of stock control males. Atrophied glands of socially deprived males strongly respond to the odor of ethereal extract of gland secretion. In males exposed daily to anal gland secretion extract, the weight and volume of the gland and plasma testosterone level increase and are not significantly different from those of stock controls. They enjoy higher plasma testosterone levels and consequently larger and more active anal glands than complete isolates.     

Urinary volatile profiles of pine vole,Microtus pinetorum,and their endocrine dependency

The volatile compounds identified by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry inMicrotus pinetorum urine include alcohols, aldehydes, hydrocarbons, ketones, nitriles, and pyrazines. Several lactone derivatives were found to be characteristic urinary substances of this species. Ovariectomy depressed concentrations of only five out of a great number of profile constituents. Elevating estrogen levels (by exposing females to male-soiled bedding or treating them with estradiol) tends to depress the urinary concentration of a number of selected volatiles. Estrogen implantation provoked a periodic increase in the level of three compounds (nonanal, benzal-dehyde, and an unidentified substance). The volatile profile of castrate male urine was similar to that of intact male urine. Female urine contained -octanoic lactone and two pyrazine derivatives in higher concentrations andp-methyI-propenylbenzene in a lower concentration, when compared to male urine. No qualitative differences between the urinary profiles of males and females were observed.     

Semiochemicals and Social Signaling in the Wild European Rabbit in Australia: I. Scent Profiles of Chin Gland Secretion from the Field

The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) uses the secretion of the chin gland in the maintenance of social status. Previous work has concentrated on secretion collected directly from the animal. In this study, the analysis was conducted by collecting scent marks made by free-ranging animals. Scent marks were found to be concentrated at the center of the area controlled by a social group, and at the boundaries between two adjacent social groups. Only the mark from dominant animals could be identified. Marks were also collected from the skin of rabbits, where they had been placed by the dominant individual. The mark found on the head of a subordinate animal may, in the future, be used to identify the dominant animal of the social group, who placed the mark.     

Identification of male cabbage looper sex pheromone attractive to females

A multicomponent pheromone produced by male cabbage looper moths that is attractive to female moths in a flight tunnel bioassay was isolated and identified. Based on analyses of hairpencil extracts of male cabbage loopers and volatiles emitted by males, the pheromone has been identified as a blend consisting of (S)-(+)-linalool,p-cresol, andm-cresol. The chirality of the major component, (S)-(+)-linalool, is important for behavioral response of females. These pheromonal compounds were also identified as volatiles released by males when males were exposed to the principal pheromone component of female cabbage loopers, (Z)-7-dodecen-1-ol acetate. The amount of male pheromone released was increased significantly when males were exposed to a combination of (Z)-7-dodecen-1-ol acetate and the odor from cabbage. Neither linalool nor the cresols were detected in volatiles from cabbage or from males exposed to cabbage odor.     

Dietary menhaden, seal, and corn oils differentially affect lipid and Ex vivo eicosanoid and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances generation in the guinea pig

This investigation was carried out to characterize the effects of specific dietary marine oils on tissue and plasma fatty acids and their capacity to generate metabolites (prostanoids, lipid peroxides). Young male guinea pigs were fed nonpurified diet (NP), or NP supplemented (10%, w/w) with menhaden fish oil (MO), harp seal oil (SLO), or corn oil (CO, control diet) for 23 to 28 d. Only the plasma showed significant n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-induced reductions in triacylglycerol (TAG) or total cholesterol concentration. Proportions of total n−3 PUFA in organs and plasma were elevated significantly in both MO and SLO dietary groups (relative to CO), and in all TAG fractions levels were significantly higher in MO-than SLO-fed animals. The two marine oil groups differed in their patterns of incorporation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). In guinea pigs fed MO, the highest levels of EPA were in the plasma TAG, whereas in SLO-fed animals, maximal incorporation of EPA was in the heart polar lipids (PL). In both marine oil groups, the greatest increases in both docosahexaenoic acid (22∶6n−3, DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (22∶5n−3, DPA) relative to the CO group, were in plasma TAG, although the highest proportions of DHA and DPA were in liver PL and heart TAG, respectively. In comparing the MO and SLO groups, the greatest difference in levels of DHA was in heart TAG (MO>SLO, P<0.005), and in levels of DPA was in heart PL (SLO>MO, P<0.0001). The only significant reduction in proportions of the major n−6 PUFA, arachidonic acid (AA), was in the heart PL of the SLO group (SLO>MO=CO, P<0.005). Marine oil feeding altered ex vivo generation of several prostanoid metabolites of AA, significantly decreasing thromboxane A₂ synthesis in homogenates of hearts and livers of guinea pigs fed MO and SLO, respectively (P<0.04 for both, relative to CO). Lipid peroxides were elevated to similar levels in MO- and SLO-fed animals in plasma, liver, and adipose tissue, but not in heart preparations. This study has shown that guinea pigs respond to dietary marine oils with increased organ and plasma n−3 PUFA, and changes in potential synthesis of metabolites. They also appear to respond to n−3 PUFA-enriched diets in a manner that is different from that of rats.     

Rat vitamin E status and heart lipid peroxidation: Effect of dietary α-Linolenic acid and marine n−3 fatty acids

Three groups of sixteen male rats each were fed semipurified diets containing 15% by weight of lipid for a period of 4 wk. The diets contained the same amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (20% of total fatty acids) and saturated fatty acids (19% of total fatty acids). Dietary PUFA were represented exclusively by linoleic acid (18∶2 diet), or 10% linoleic acid and 10% linolenic acid (18∶3 diet), or 10% linoleic acid and 10% long-chain n−3 fatty acids (LCn−3 diet). The overall amount of vitamin E was similar in the three diets,i.e, 140, 133 and 129 mg/kg diet, respectively. Following appropriate extraction, tocopherol levels in heart, liver, brain, adipose tissue (AT) and plasma were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. The level of vitamin E in the heart decreased with n−3 PUFA diets, most markedly with LCn−3 PUFA. Liver and AT vitamin E contents also decreased with n−3 PUFA diets when expressed as μg/mg total lipids and μg/mg phospholipids, respectively. Total plasma vitamin E was lower in rats fed the LCn−3 diet, but there was no significant difference when expressed as μg/mg total lipids. Brain vitamin E was not affected by the various diets.In vitro cardiac lipid peroxidation was quantified by the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) test. Heart homogenates were incubated at 37°C for 15 and 30 min in both the absence (uninduced) or presence (induced) of a free radical generating system (1 mM xanthine, 0.1 IU per mL xanthine oxidase, 0.2 mM/0.4 mM Fe/ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid). TBARS release was time-independent but significantly higher when LCn−3 fatty acids were fed to rats in either the uninduced or induced system. The study demonstrated that n−3 PUFA diets can influence vitamin E status of rats even in short-term experiments and can change the susceptibility of the heart toin vitro lipid peroxidation.     

冠心病并抑郁患者血浆神经肽Y和心率变异性的相关研究

目的探讨冠心病(CHD)合并抑郁障碍患者血浆神经肽Y(NPY)与心率变异性(HRV)的相关性。方法66例经选择性冠状动脉造影确诊为CHD的住院病人,通过Zung抑郁自评量表问卷调查分为抑郁障碍组(抑郁组,36例)和对照组(不伴抑郁障碍,30例)。运用放射免疫法检测患者血浆NPY含量,运用动态心电图系统采集患者的心电信号进行HKV分析。结果(1)与CHD患者比较,合并抑郁障碍的CHD患者血浆NPY水平均明显增高,具有统计学差异(P<0.05);(2)与CHD患者比较,合并抑郁障碍的CHD患者HKV指标SDNN、rMSSD、PNN50明显降低,具有统计学差异(P<0.05);(3)CHD并抑郁障碍患者血NPY与HRV呈负相关。结论CHD并抑郁障碍患者血NPY增高与HRV降低密切相关。     

Pattern of volatile compounds in dominant and subordinate male mouse urine

The urinary volatiles from dominant and subordinate male mice were chromatographically compared, both immediately and seven days after dominant-subordinate relationships between pairs were formed. Statistical comparison of the peak areas of volatile constituents present in male urine revealed that 16 urinary compounds exhibited substantial concentration differences depending upon social status of the animals. Urinary dihydrofurans, ketones, and acetates exhibited a significant, long-term (seven-day) decrease in the urine of subordinates when compared to control and dominant males. Two sesquiterpenic compounds, - and -farnesene, were elevated only in the dominant urine one week after dominance was established. 2-(sec-Butyl)-4,5-dihydrothiazole was found in higher concentration in bladder or excreted urine of dominant males when compared to subordinates. Of the 16 compounds subjected to statistical analysis, four exhibited hormonal dependency: - and -farnesene, dehydro-exo-brevicomin, and 2-(sec-butyl)-4,5-dihydrothiazole. Neither dehydro-exo-brevicomin nor 2-(sec-butyl)-4,5-dihydrothiazole was present in the urine of immature and castrated males. Testosterone treatment restores their presence in male urine. Also, - and -farnesene were absent in the urine of immature males and significantly reduced in the urine of castrated males. The absence of - and -farnesene in bladder urine suggests that one of the sex-accessory glands may be the site of their origin.     

A Multi-Component Pheromone in the Urine of Dominant Male Tilapia (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oreochromis mossambicus</Emphasis>) Reduces Aggression in Rivals

Males often use scent to communicate their dominance, and to mediate aggressive and breeding behaviors. In teleost fish, however, the chemical composition of male pheromones is poorly understood. Male Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, use urine that signals social status and primes females to spawn. The urinary sex pheromone directed at females consists of 5β-pregnane-3α,17α,20β-triol 3-glucuronate and its 20α-epimer. The concentration of these is positively correlated with male social rank. This study tested whether dominant male urine reduces aggression in receiver males, and whether the pregnanetriol 3-glucuronates also reduce male-male aggression. Males were allowed to fight their mirror image when exposed to either: i) water control or a chemical stimulus; ii) dominant male urine (DMU); iii) C18-solid phase (C18-SPE) DMU eluate; iv) C18-SPE DMU eluate plus filtrate; v) the two pregnanetriol 3-glucuronates (P3Gs); or vi) P3Gs plus DMU filtrate. Control males mounted an increasingly aggressive fight against their image over time. However, DMU significantly reduced this aggressive response. The two urinary P3Gs did not replicate the effect of whole DMU. Neither did the C18-SPE DMU eluate, containing the P3Gs, alone, nor the C18-SPE DMU filtrate to which the two P3Gs were added. Only exposure to reconstituted DMU (C18-SPE eluate plus filtrate) restored the aggression-reducing effect of whole DMU. Olfactory activity was present in the eluate and the polar filtrate in electro-olfactogram studies. We conclude that P3Gs alone have no reducing effect on aggression and that the urinary signal driving off male competition is likely to be a multi-component pheromone, with components present in both the polar and non-polar urine fractions.     

Olfactory responses ofIps plastographus maritimus lanier (coleoptera: Scolytidae) to insect and host-associated volatiles in the laboratory

Attraction of both sexes ofIps plastographus maritimus Lanier to bark-phloem-xylem discs of Monterey pine,Pinus radiata D. Don, was demonstrated in the laboratory. Increasing concentrations of male and female volatiles trapped separately and released in a one-to-one ratio decreased attraction for both sexes combined. Attraction of both sexes to volatiles derived from males and females tunneling together in a one-to-one ratio increased with increasing concentration of extract. Attraction of males and females to male-infested discs and to trapped male volatiles increased with increasing dose of males or male extract. Attraction of males and females to female-infested discs and to trapped female volatiles was also demonstrated. The presence of females in male galleries reduced the attractiveness of infested disks to both sexes combined. Increasing numbers of females, tunneling separately from males in the same disc, reduced attraction of males, but not females. When a constant attractive dose of male volatiles was released with increasing doses of female volatiles, there was no difference in response of either sex when female volatiles were present compared with the response to male volatiles alone. When a constant attractive dose of male volatiles was released with increasing concentrations of volatiles derived from males and females tunneling together in a one-to-one ratio, attraction ofI. p. maritimus decreased. Response of females was frequently higher than that of males to the same attractant source. Hence, both sexes produce an attractant, and both sexes tunneling together in the same gallery reduce attraction of males and females to an attractive dose of male attractant.     

Syn- andanti-phenylacetaldehyde oxime two novel testosterone-dependent mammalian metabolites

Domestic guinea pigs having high levels of circulating testosterone (i.e., males and castrate males receiving testosterone propionate injections) excrete in their urine equal amounts of both thesyn andanti isomers of phenylacetaldehyde oxime, while those guinea pigs having low testosterone titers (i.e., females, castrate males, and juveniles) excrete neither. These aldoximes were also detected in the urine of wild male guinea pigs. Radiolabeling studies in the domestic guinea pigs strongly suggest that these aldoximes are derived from phenylalanine. To our knowledge this is the first observation and isolation of phenylacetaldehyde oxime from a mammalian source. The significance of these components in phenylalanine metabolism as well as in guinea pig chemical communication is discussed.     

Identification of some volatile compounds in the odor of fecal pellets of the rabbit,Oryctolagus cuniculus

A study has been made of the volatile constituents in the vapors collected from fecal pellets of wild rabbits,Oryctolagus cuniculus. Measurements of changes in the heart rates of adult male rabbits exposed to the effluent of a gas chromatographic capillary column were used to indicate the presence of compounds which may be of behavioral significance. Combined with the use of high-resolution columns in gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, this approach has implicated several classes of compounds, including volatile fatty acids and phenols, which in certain absolute or relative concentrations may be involved in the formation of signals of territorial importance.     

Chemically Mediated Mate Location and Evaluation in the Lobster, Homarus americanus

Many aspects of lobster (Homarus americanus) social behavior have been shown to be regulated by chemical signals. Female lobsters can determine the sex of sheltered conspecifics from a distance, and will approach and attempt to enter male-occupied shelters. We investigated (1) if female attraction to male-occupied shelters and entering decisions are based upon chemical signals, particularly male urine signals, and (2) if male dominance status and female molt stage influence these female behaviors. Sheltered dominant males were fitted with urine catheters, which collect urine and prevent its release into the environment. We found that males increased urine output in response to female entering attempts. Blocking male urine release significantly reduced the incidence of female shelter approach and the time spent attempting to enter. Artificial release of male urine in the presence of a catheterized male restored female approach but not time spent attempting to enter, while artificial urine release alone did not induce either behavior. Females approached any single male, but seemed to prefer to enter shelters occupied by more dominant males. Premolt and intermolt females differed in their behaviors: premolts showed more interest in approaching dominant male shelters without much effort to enter, while intermolts appeared less likely to approach but more motivated to attempt to enter shelters. This study suggests that both intermolt and premolt female lobsters use one or more chemical signals from sheltered males for location and evaluation of potential mates. Male urine appears to carry compound(s) important for both location and entering decisions, although nonurine chemical or other sensory signals are also implicated during close-up mate evaluation.     

Morphological and biochemical changes of the heart in experimental hypochromic anemia in rats

The effect of iron deficiency anemia on the catecholamine levels and morphology of the heart was studied in young male Wistar rats. The iron-deficient rats showed mild restriction of body weight gain and a striking lowering of blood hemoglobin concentration. In addition the present study demonstrated that the experimental iron deficiency anemia induces cardiac hypertrophy, as revealed by increased heart weight associated with increased size of cardiac muscle cells, as well as decreased myocardium catecholamine levels. The possible meaning of the neurohormonal change in the pathogenesis of the hypertrophic heart is discussed.     

Exposure to odors from stressed conspecifics increases preference for higher ambient temperatures in C57BL/6J mice

Exposure to odors from stressed conspecifics increases preference for higher ambient temperatures in C57BL/6J mice. C57BL/6J male mice were individually allowed preferences on a thermal gradient ranging in temperature from 22°C to 42°C. Group 1 (N=10) was exposed to odors from triads of foot-shocked conspecifics during the first 2-hr temperature preference trial. Group 2 (N=10) was exposed to odors from triads of nonstressed conspecifics during similar testing. Body temperature (T_B) variations were measured in three animals of each group. Thermal preference was significantly higher for animals exposed to odors from stressed conspecifics than for animals exposed to odors from nonstressed animals (32.0°C vs. 29.0°C).T _B changes on the heated gradient were significantly higher for animals exposed to odors from stressed animals (+1.5°C) than for animals exposed to odors from nonstressed animals (–0.33°C). Additional animals on a non-heated thermogradient were tested for T_B when exposed to odors from stressed or from nonstressed animals (N=3 per condition). There was no difference inT _B between these two groups. Increases in T_B on the heated gradient are apparently due to the higher ambient temperature choices and not due to the odor per se.     

n‐3 PUFA Esterified to Glycerol or as Ethyl Esters Reduce Non‐Fasting Plasma Triacylglycerol in Subjects with Hypertriglyceridemia: A Randomized Trial

To date, treatment of hypertriglyceridemia with long‐chain n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n‐3 PUFA) has been investigated solely in fasting and postprandial subjects. However, non‐fasting triacylglycerols are more strongly associated with risk of cardiovascular disease. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of long‐chain n‐3 PUFA on non‐fasting triacylglycerol levels and to compare the effects of n‐3 PUFA formulated as acylglycerol (AG‐PUFA) or ethyl esters (EE‐PUFA). The study was a double‐blinded randomized placebo‐controlled interventional trial, and included 120 subjects with non‐fasting plasma triacylglycerol levels of 1.7–5.65 mmol/L (150–500 mg/dL). The participants received approximately 3 g/day of AG‐PUFA, EE‐PUFA, or placebo for a period of eight weeks. The levels of non‐fasting plasma triacylglycerols decreased 28 % in the AG‐PUFA group and 22 % in the EE‐PUFA group (P < 0.001 vs. placebo), with no significant difference between the two groups. The triacylglycerol lowering effect was evident after four weeks, and was inversely correlated with the omega‐3 index (EPA + DHA content in erythrocyte membranes). The omega‐3 index increased 63.2 % in the AG‐PUFA group and 58.5 % in the EE‐PUFA group (P < 0.001). Overall, the heart rate in the AG‐PUFA group decreased by three beats per minute (P = 0.045). High‐density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increased in the AG‐PUFA group (P < 0.001). Neither total nor non‐HDL cholesterol changed in any group. Lipoprotein‐associated phospholipase A2 (LpPLA2) decreased in the EE‐PUFA group (P = 0.001). No serious adverse events were observed. Supplementation with long‐chain n‐3 PUFA lowered non‐fasting triacylglycerol levels, suggestive of a reduction in cardiovascular risk. Regardless of the different effects on heart rate, HDL, and LpPLA2 that were observed, compared to placebo, AG‐PUFA, and EE‐PUFA are equally effective in reducing non‐fasting triacylglycerol levels.     

Effects of a water-soluble phytostanol ester on plasma cholesterol levels and red blood cell fragility in hamsters

The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of a novel water-soluble phytostanol anolog, disodium ascorbyl phytostanyl phosphate (DAPP), on plasma lipid levels and red blood cell fragility in hamsters fed atherogenic diets. For 4 wk, 50 male Golden Syrian hamsters were fed a semipurified diet without added cholesterol (noncholesterol, group 1), or a semipurified diet with 0.25% cholesterol (cholesterol-control, group 2). Groups 3–5 were fed the cholesterol-control diet with an addition of 1% phytostanols (diet 3), 0.71% DAPP (DAPP 0.7%, diet 4), or 1.43% DAPP (DAPP 1.4%, diet 5). Diets 4 and 5 provided 0.5 and 1% phytostanols, respectively. Supplementation of 0.71 and 1.43% DAPP decreased plasma total cholesterol concentrations by 34 (P<0.001) and 46% (P<0.001), respectively, in comparison with the cholesterol-control group, whereas free stanols reduced (P=0.007) plasma cholesterol concentrations by 14%. Similarly, non-HDL-cholesterol concentrations were reduced by 39 (P<0.001) and 54% (P<0.001) in hamsters supplemented with DAPP 0.7% and DAPP 1.4%, respectively, relative to the cholesterol-control group. The hypocholesterolemic effect of DAPP 1.4% was threefold stronger than that of free stanols. In hamsters supplemented with DAPP 1.4%, plasma TG concentrations were 45% lower (P=0.018) than in cholesterol-control-fed hamsters, whereas no such beneficial effect was observed in the free stanol group. Erythrocyte fragility was unaffected by DAPP or free phytostanols. Results of the current study demonstrate that DAPP lowers cholesterol more efficiently than free stanols, without an adverse effect on erythrocyte fragility in hamsters.     

Stearidonic Acid Increases the Red Blood Cell and Heart Eicosapentaenoic Acid Content in Dogs

Plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids (FA) are needed that can materially raise tissue levels of long-chain omega-3 FA [i.e., eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 20:6n-3)]. Stearidonic acid (SDA; 18:4n-3) is the delta-6 desaturase product of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3n-3), and when fed to humans, increases red blood cell (RBC) content of EPA to a greater extent than does ALA. This study was undertaken to determine the dose-dependence and time course of the increase in the EPA and DHA content of the heart and RBC in dogs. Adult male Beagles were fed 21, 64, or 193 mg/kg of SDA in in their food daily for up to 12 weeks. Positive and negative controls were given EPA (43 mg/kg) or high oleic acid sunflower oil, respectively. The baseline EPA content of RBC was 0.38 ± 0.03% which increased (P < 0.01) in a dose-dependent manner, with the high dose of SDA and EPA achieving levels of 1.33 ± 0.26 and 1.55. ± 0.28%, respectively. In the heart, the content of EPA rose from 0.06 ± 0.01 to 1.24 ± 0.22% in the EPA group and to 0.81 ± 0.32% in the high SDA group (both P < 0.01). In both tissues, DHA did not change. Compared to dietary EPA, SDA was 20–23% as efficient in raising tissue EPA levels. In conclusion, SDA supplementation increased the EPA content of RBC and heart and may have utility as a plant-based source of omega-3 FA.