Reverse transformation of ferrite and pearlite to austenite in an ultrafine-grained low-carbon steel fabricated by severe plastic deformation

Reverse transformation characteristics of a low-carbon steel consisting of ultrafine-grained (UFG) ferrite and severely deformed pearlite by severe plastic deformation were investigated and compared to those of the steel having coarse-grained (CG) ferrite and undeformed pearlite by austenitization and subsequent air cooling. Coarse-grained steel exhibited two serial transformation stages, i.e., pear-lite → austenite followed by ferrite → austenite. Contrarily, UFG steel transformed with the three serial stages, i.e., probably carbon-supersaturated ferrite → austenite, not-fully-dissolved pearlite → austenite, and ferrite → austenite transformations.     

Effect of interpass time on austenite grain refinement by means of dynamic recrystallization of austenite

A 0.06 pct C-0.3 pct Mn and a 0.07 pct C-0.6 pct Mn-0.028 pct Nb steel were deformed in torsion at a constant strain rate of 2/s. Two schedules were used. In schedule A, seven roughing passes executed between 1260°C and 1130°C were followed by a single large finishing pass with a strain of 3.5 at constant temperatures between 1010°C and 840°C. The time between roughing and finishing was 200 seconds. In schedule B, the seven roughing passes were followed by 10 finishing passes, again applied isothermally, with strains of 0.3 and interpass times of 0.6, 2, and 10 seconds. The results indicate that for the Nb steel, low rolling temperatures (870°C) and strains above 2 are required for complete dynamic recrystallization, which results in austenite grain sizes under 6μm. Cooled at a rate of 10°C/s, the dynamically recrystallized austenite grain structures transform into ferrite with grain sizes under 4 μ. Extrapolations from the present data suggest that at industrial strain rates and cooling rates, ferrite grain sizes under 2 μm should be achieved. Y.W. BOWDEN, formerly CSIRA Research Associate, Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, McGill University     

Extreme austenite grain refinement due to dynamic recrystallization

The possibility of a progressive austenite grain refinement due to dynamic recrystallization during low temperature finish rolling has been studied on a microalloyed Mn-steel. By using hot working simulation tests the range of deformation conditions was determined in which an austenite mean grain size of 1–4 μm can be achieved. The subsequent formation of a fine ferrite structure leads to excellent mechanical properties superior to those of heavily deformed but not recrystallized austenite.     

Metal processing by severe plastic deformation

The mechanics of severe plastic deformation (SPD) is considered. Unlike steady-state plastic flows with the continuous evolution of dislocation structures, the SPD-induced microlocalization strongly depends on the deformation mode. The quantitative characteristic of a deformation mode is determined by the distribution of strain rates over the principal directions of a continuum shear and corresponds to the limiting states of pure shear and simple shear. Simple models of SPD mesomechanics demonstrate that a deformation mode affects a transition to localization, localization in shear bands, and rotational localization. The simple shear mode is shown to correspond to the optimum scheme of plastic structure formation, including the development of high-angle boundaries and grain refinement. Various SPD processes are analyzed in terms of simple shear.     

Nucleation sites for ultrafine ferrite produced by deformation of austenite during single-pass strip rolling

An austenitic Ni-30 wt pct Fe alloy, with a stacking-fault energy and deformation characteristics similar to those of austenitic low-carbon steel at elevated temperatures, has been used to examine the defect substructure within austenite deformed by single-pass strip rolling and to identify those features most likely to provide sites for intragranular nucleation of ultrafine ferrite in steels. Samples of this alloy and a 0.095 wt pct C-1.58Mn-0.22Si-0.27Mo steel have been hot rolled and cooled under similar conditions, and the resulting microstructures were compared using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron diffraction, and X-ray diffraction. Following a single rolling pass of ∼40 pct reduction of a 2mm strip at 800 °C, three microstructural zones were identified throughout its thickness. The surface zone (of 0.1 to 0.4 mm in depth) within the steel comprised a uniform microstructure of ultrafine ferrite, while the equivalent zone of a Ni-30Fe alloy contained a network of dislocation cells, with an average diameter of 0.5 to 1.0 μm. The scale and distribution and, thus, nucleation density of the ferrite grains formed in the steel were consistent with the formation of individual ferrite nuclei on cell boundaries within the austenite. In the transition zone, 0.3 to 0.5 mm below the surface of the steel strip, discrete polygonal ferrite grains were observed to form in parallel, and closely spaced “rafts” traversing individual grains of austenite. Based on observations of the equivalent zone of the rolled Ni-30Fe alloy, the ferrite distribution could be correlated with planar defects in the form of intragranular microshear bands formed within the deformed austenite during rolling. Within the central zone of the steel strip, a bainitic microstructure, typical of that observed after conventional hot rolling of this steel, was observed following air cooling. In this region of the rolled Ni-30Fe alloy, a network of microbands was observed, typical of material deformed under plane-strain conditions.     

The kinetics of ferrite nucleation at austenite grain boundaries in Fe-C alloys

The nucleation kinetics of grain boundary allotriomorphs of proeutectoid ferrite at austenite grain faces have been measured in three high purity Fe-C alloys as a function of isothermal reaction time and temperature. Several correction techniques, including discrimination between different nucleation sites and the effect of carbon diffusion fields on further nucleation of ferrite, were incorporated into a stereological procedure utilizing the SchwartzJSaltykov size distribution analysis. This analysis enabled the number of ferrite particles per unit unreacted grain boundary area to be obtained as a function of isothermal reaction time, and thus the time-dependent nucleation kinetics to be obtained as a function of temperature and carbon concentration. These rates were then compared with those predicted by classical heterogeneous nucleation theory using various models for the critical nucleus. It was concluded that viable critical nuclei must have predominately low energy interphase boundaries. Only a very small fraction of the austenite grain face area appears to be capable of supporting nucleation. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931 Formerly Professor at Michigan Technological University     

Nucleation kinetics of proeutectoid ferrite at austenite grain boundaries in Fe-C-X alloys

The nucleation kinetics of proeutectoid ferrite allotriomorphs at austenite grain boundaries in Fe-0.5 at. Pct C-3 at. Pct X alloys, where X is successively Mn, Ni, Co, and Si and in an Fe-0.8 at. Pct C-2.5 at. Pct Mo alloy have been measured using previously developed experimental techniques. The results were analyzed in terms of the influence of substitutional alloying elements upon the volume free energy change and upon the energies of austenite grain boundaries and nucleus: matrix boundaries. Classical nucleation theory was employed in conjunction with the pillbox model of the critical nucleus applied during the predecessor study of ferrite nucleation kinetics at grain boundaries in Fe-C alloys. The free energy change associated with nucleation was evaluated from both the Hillert-Staffanson and the Central Atoms Models of interstitial-substitutional solid solutions. The grain boundary concentrations of X determined with a Scanning Auger Microprobe were utilized to calculate the reduction in the austenite grain boundary energy produced by the segregation of alloying elements. Analysis of these data in terms of nucleation theory indicates that much of the influence of X upon ferrite nucleation rate derives from effects upon the volume-free energy change,i.e., upon alterations in the path of theγ/(α + γ) phase boundary. Additional effects arise from reductions in austenite grain boundary energy, with austenite-forming alloying elements being more effective in this regard than ferrite-formers. By difference, the remaining influence of the alloy elements studied evidently results from their ability to diminish the energies of the austenite: ferrite boundaries enclosing the critical nucleus. The role of nucleation kinetics in the formation of a bay in the TTT diagram of Fe-C-Mo alloys is also considered. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie-Mellon University     

晶粒尺寸对大塑性变形的两相合金超塑性的影响

在室温下对共晶铅锡合金( Pb-62% Sn)进行了高压扭转变形( HPT)。采用不同时间的自退火制备不同晶粒尺寸的样品。最长的自退火时间为12天。通过研究这些样品在室温下不同的拉伸行为,从而获得了关于超塑性性能的结果。之后,本文通过将这些结果与等通道挤压( ECAP)获得的样品进行比较,不仅证明了所有样品都具有良好的超塑性,而且具有小晶粒尺寸的样品更容易在大应变速率的条件下获得超塑性。     

Grain refinement of microalloyed austenite due to statical recrystallization after hot deformation

In a microalloyed Nb-Mo steel the austenite structure was evaluated. For hot compression tests in the temperature region of 1000–1150°C with subsequent complete statical recrystallization the hot deformation simulator (WUMSI) was employed. Effects of initial austenite grain size, strain and deformation temperature on recrystallized austenite structure were established. The results emphasize the controlling role of potential nucleation sites. The single deformation study was supplemented by some multiple deformation tests and common guidelines were formulated.     

Mechanical properties of iron processed by severe plastic deformation

In the present study, the mechanical properties of Fe processed via severe plastic deformation (equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP)) at room temperature were investigated for the first time. The grain size of annealed Fe, with an initial grain size of about 200 μm, was reduced drastically during ECAP. After eight passes, the grain size reaches 200 to 400 nm, as documented by means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The value of microhardness during pressing increases 3 times over that of the starting material after the first pass and increases slightly during subsequent pressing for higher-purity Fe. Examination of the value of microhardness after eight passes as a function of post-ECAP annealing temperature shows a transition from recovery to recrystallization, an observation that resembles the behavior reported for heavily deformed metals and alloys. The tensile and compression behaviors were examined. In tension, a drop in the engineering stress-engineering strain curve beyond maximum load was observed both in the annealed Fe and the ECAP Fe. This drop is related to the neck deformation. The fracture surface, examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), shows vein patterns, which is different from the dimples found on the fracture surface of annealed Fe. In compression, an initial strain-hardening region followed by a no-strain-hardening region was observed in the ECAP Fe. The yield strength in tension of the ECAP Fe was observed to be higher than that in compression. The strengthening mechanisms and softening behavior are discussed.     

The kinetics of ferrite nucleation at austenite grain edges in Fe-C and Fe-C-X alloys

Nucleation kinetics of proeutectoid ferrite allotriomorphs at the edges of austenite grains in Fe-C and Fe-C-X alloys, where X is successively Mn, Ni, Co, and Si, have been measured using a modification of the techniques previously developed to study nucleation at grain faces. Analysis of these data with classical heterogeneous nucleation theory has shown that ferrite nuclei formed at grain edges have low energy interphase boundaries. An equivalent conclusion was reached during our previous studies of ferrite nucleation at austenite grain faces. The influence of alloying elements on nucleation rates was also found to follow a pattern similar to that demonstrated for grain face nucleation. Formerly Graduate Student with the Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie-Mellon University,     

送装工艺对板坯再加热过程奥氏体晶粒细化的影响

连铸坯下线至加热炉的温度制度及其表层组织演变与热送或粗轧裂纹密切相关.基于热模拟实验分析了送装工艺对奥氏体转变特征和再加热晶粒尺寸的影响.高温共聚焦激光扫描显微镜原位观察表明,含Nb J55钢在双相区700℃热装时,组织为晶界膜状先共析铁素体、魏氏体和大量残留奥氏体,再加热至1200℃,奥氏体晶粒大小、位置都不变;单相区600℃温装时,组织为大量铁素体+珠光体,再加热至1200℃时,奥氏体晶粒明显细化.马弗炉模拟SS400钢双相区不同热装温度发现,铁素体转变量至少达70%时才可细化再加热后的奥氏体晶粒.在临界转变量以上,基体中铁素体转变量越多晶粒细化程度越明显.     

Effect of the severe plastic deformation temperature on the diffusion properties of the grain boundaries in ultrafine-grained metals

A model is proposed to explain the effect of the severe plastic deformation (SPD) temperature on the diffusion properties of the grain boundaries in ultrafine-grained (UFG) metals and alloys. It is shown that an increase in the SPD temperature in UFG metals leads to an increase in the activation energy of grainboundary diffusion from (3–5)k _B T _m, which corresponds to the diffusion parameters of nonequilibrium grain boundaries, to (8–10)k _B T _m, which corresponds to the diffusion parameters of equilibrium grain boundaries (k _B is the Boltzmann constant, T _m is the melting temperature). The dependence of the activation energy of grain-boundary diffusion on the SPD temperature is found to be determined by the kinetics of the competing processes of defect accumulation at grain boundaries and the diffusion accommodation of defects.     

热变形行为对20钢奥氏体晶粒形貌的影响

20#钢作为冷镦钢线,若出现混晶时,严重影响产品的质量.采用热模拟压缩变形试验的方法,研究了变形温度和变形量对低碳钢奥氏体晶粒形貌的影响.结果表明,变形量对奥氏体晶粒形貌有显著的影响,而变形温度的影响较小;在950℃变形量为30%～50%时混晶现象最严重.为工业生产提供了技术原型.     

合金元素对曲轴用非调质钢奥氏体长大和组织细化的影响

通过研究曲轴用非调质钢奥氏体晶粒长大行为和分析工业生产热轧材的显微组织,探讨合金元素Nb、Ti和S的组织细化作用.结果表明:添加质量分数0.027%Nb和0.012%Ti,同时S从0.029%提高到0.046%,加热时间30 min时,能够把奥氏体晶粒粗化温度提高100℃,并明显细化热轧材边部组织.弥散分布、钉扎在奥氏体晶界上的未溶第二相粒子MnS和(Nb,Ti)(C,N),能够有效抑制奥氏体晶粒的长大.在热加工过程中,合金元素的组织细化作用需要适当的变形制度予以匹配,才能得以体现.     

Effects of austenite grain size and cooling rate on Widmanstätten ferrite formation in low-alloy steels

Deformation dilatometry is used to simulate the hot rolling of 0.20 pct C-1.10 pct Mn steels over a product thickness range of 6 to 170 mm. In addition to a base steel, steels with additions of 0.02 pct Ti, 0.06 pct V, or 0.02 pct Nb are included in the study. The transformation behavior of each steel is explored for three different austenite grain sizes, nominally 30, 55, and 100 μm. In general, the volume fraction of Widmanst?tten ferrite increases in all four steels with increasing austenite grain size and cooling rate, with austenite grain size having the more significant effect. The Nb steel has the lowest transformation temperature range and the greatest propensity for Widmanst?tten ferrite formation, while the amount of Widmanst?tten ferrite is minimized in the Ti steel (as a result of intragranular nucleation of polygonal ferrite on coarse TiN particles). The data emphasize the importance of a refined austenite grain size in minimizing the formation of a coarse Widmanst?tten structure. With a sufficiently fine prior austenite grain size (e.g., ≤30 μm), significant amounts of Widmanst?tten structure can be avoided, even in a Nb-alloyed steel.     

Effect of ferrite formation on abnormal austenite grain coarsening in low-alloy steels during the hot rolling process

Abnormal coarsening of austenite (γ) grains occurred in low-alloy steels during a seamless pipe hotrolling process. Often, the grains became several hundred micrometers in diameter. This made it difficult to apply direct quenching to produce high-performance pipes. The phenomenon of grain coarsening was successfully reproduced using a thermomechanical simulator, and the factors which affected grain coarsening were clarified. The mechanism was found to be basically strain-induced grain rowth which occurred during reheating at around 930 °C. Furthermore, once a pipe temperature decreased to the dual-phase region after the minimal hot working and prior to the reheating process, the grain coarsening was more pronounced. It was understood that the formation of ferrite along grain boundaries had the role of reducing the migration of grain boundaries into neighboring grains, leaving a strain-free, recrystallized region behind. This abnormal grain coarsening was found to be effectively prevented by an addition of Nb, the content of which varied depending on the C content. The effect of the Nb addition was confirmed by an in-line test.     

Transformation of the grain structure in a metal during plastic deformation

Statistical data processing techniques are used to study the distribution laws of the geometrical parameters of grains in steel 22GYu after sheet rolling. A method for predicting changes in the geometrical characteristics of the grain structure after deformation is developed.