Assessment of the dietary habits and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in primary school children

Thirty Italian children, 7–9 year aged, living in Naples were investigated on their dietary habits and on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure by a food diary-questionnaire and one week duplicate diet sample analyses. Daily total food consumption mean value was 632 ± 215 g day^?1, median value 613 g day^?1. The daily energy intake and the diet composition meanly agreed with the official guidelines for the Italian children. Sixteen PAHs were simultaneously detected and, according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approach, benzo[a]pyrene; benzo[a]pyrene + chrysene (PAH2); PAH2 + benz[a]anthracene + benzo[b]fluoranthene (PAH4); PAH4 + benzo[k]fluoranthene + benzo[ghi]perylene + dibenz[a, h]anthracene + indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (PAH8) were considered in evaluating the children's dietary exposure to PAHs. The benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) median concentrations in foods varied from 0.06 to 0.33 µg kg^?1. Only three samples of cooked foods (one fish and two meat samples) exceeded legal limits fixed by the European Union for BaP. Daily median intakes of benzo[a]pyrene, PAH2, PAH4, and PAH8 were 153; 318; 990; 1776 ng day^?1; their median exposure values were 5; 10; 28; 54 ng kg^?1 bw day^?1. The Margins of Exposure (MOEs) in median consumers agreed with the EFSA safety values except for PAH8.     

8种多环芳烃联合暴露致大鼠肝脏毒性及BMDL推导

目的 探究8种多环芳烃（PAH8）联合暴露的大鼠肝脏毒性,利用基准剂量法（BMD）获得PAH8致肝脏毒性的基准剂量95%置信区间下限值（BMDL）。方法 雄性SD大鼠随机分为5组,每组10只,分别按照0、10、50、250和1 000μg/kg·BW剂量的PAH8连续染毒30 d后处死大鼠,计算脏器系数,进行肝脏病理学检测和油红O染色,检测血清谷丙转氨酶、谷草转氨酶、丙二醛、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GSH-Px）、甘油三酯（TG）、总胆固醇（TC）的水平及肝脏TG、TC含量。选择具有统计学意义、毒理学意义和剂量效应趋势的肝脏毒性数据,利用BMDS 3.2软件进行BMD分析,选择最佳拟合模型得到BMDL值。结果 1 000μg/kg·BW剂量组大鼠肝脏系数较对照组显著升高（P<0.05）。PAH8染毒后部分大鼠肝脏出现细胞水肿、炎性浸润、脂肪变性等病理改变。10～250μg/kg·BW剂量组血清GSH-Px较对照组显著升高（P<0.01）,但1 000μg/kg·BW剂量组GSH-Px显著降低（P<0.001）。肝脏中TC含量呈现剂量效应趋势,1 000μg/kg·BW剂量...     

Simultaneous formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) in gas-grilled beef satay at different temperatures

This study investigated the simultaneous formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) in gas-grilled beef satay at different temperatures (150, 200, 250, 300, and 350°C). Solid-phase extraction (SPE) was used for sample clean-up. Fifteen PAHs were determined using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and nine HCAs were quantified using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with a gradient programme. The lowest significantly concentrations of PAHs and HCAs were generated at 150°C; the formation of PAHs and HCAs simultaneously increased with temperatures. Benzo[a]pyrene was detected in all samples and increased markedly at 300 and 350°C. The sums of 4 PAHs (PAH4) in marinated beef satay at 300 and 350°C exceeded the maximum level in Commission Regulation (EU) 2015/1125. Significant reductions of polar and non-polar HCAs (except PhIP) were found in marinated beef satay across all temperatures. Overall, PAHs and HCAs showed opposite trends of formation in beef satay with marination.     

食用油脂中多环芳烃污染来源及控制技术研究展望

多环芳烃(PAHs)作为持久性有机污染物,近年来引发的食用油脂的质量安全事件时有发生,引起了全社会的关注。文中综述了多环芳烃的物理化学性质及其毒性,对油脂中污染水平进行了分析,并对油脂中出现多环芳烃污染的可能来源、控制技术和脱除方法进行了阐述。     

Assessing effects of metal mining effluent on fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) reproduction in a trophic-transfer exposure system

Assessment of effects of metal mine effluent (MME) on aquatic organisms in lab-based settings predominantly evaluates contaminant transfer through the water only with little emphasis on food-borne exposure. The effects of MME on fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) (FHM) have been reported downstream of metal mine discharges in the Junction Creek system, Sudbury, ON, but to date, no study has investigated the significance of trophic transfer in this system. Our objective was to develop a self-sustaining trophic-transfer bioassay, using Chironomus tentans and FHM, that allowed assessment of the effects of not only water-borne (FHM-only) but also food- and water-borne (trophic-transfer) exposure to MME on FHM reproduction. Reproductive performance of FHM was assessed for 21 days under controlled laboratory conditions to obtain baseline data of various endpoints, including egg production and hatching success. Exposure to 45% (v/v) Copper Cliff mine effluent (CCME) and control treatments for both systems was then conducted for a further 21 days. It was evident that reproductive output in both the water-only and the trophic-transfer system was reduced compared to controls. It was only in the trophic-transfer system that a significant reduction in larval hatching and an increase in deformities occurred after exposure to CCME. This would suggest that contaminated food was a route of exposure causing effects on larval survival.     

Prediction of personal exposure to PM2.5 and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by their concentrations in residential microenvironments

We measured exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including carcinogenic PAHs, in multiple locations for a diverse population of participants who resided in Shizuoka, Japan. In summer and winter 2002 we surveyed personal concentrations, those of four primary indoor microenvironments-living room, bedroom, kitchen (summer only), and workplace--and those outside the subjects' houses. Concentrations of PM2.5 and PAHs tended to be higher during winter. Median PM2.5 concentration was highest in living room samples during winter but in personal samples during summer. The median PAH concentrations normalized to the cancer potency equivalence factor of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP-TEQ) was highest in the bedroom during winter but outdoors in summer. Personal exposure level profiles differed markedly between smokers and nonsmokers. Personal exposures to BaP ([BaP]p) and BaP-TEQ ([BaP-TEQ]P) in nonsmokers were strongly correlated. Personal exposures of nonsmokers, as calculated from the corresponding time-weighted indoor and outdoor concentrations, were consistent with measured levels of BaP but not PM2.5. Personal exposure of nonsmokers to BaP, as calculated from the time-weighted living room, bedroom, and either workplace or outdoor concentrations, accounted for 92-107% of the measured levels of BaP-TEQ.     

Review of the quantification techniques for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food products

There is a growing need for accurate detection of trace-level PAHs in food products due to the numerous detrimental effects caused by their contamination (e.g., toxicity, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity). This review aims to discuss the up-to-date knowledge on the measurement techniques available for PAHs contained in food or its related products. This article aims to provide a comprehensive outline on the measurement techniques of PAHs in food to help reduce their deleterious impacts on human health based on the accurate quantification. The main part of this review is dedicated to the opportunities and practical options for the treatment of various food samples and for accurate quantification of PAHs contained in those samples. Basic information regarding all available analytical measurement techniques for PAHs in food samples is also evaluated with respect to their performance in terms of quality assurance.     

Predicting bioavailability of sediment polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to Hyalella azteca using equilibrium partitioning, supercritical fluid extraction, and pore water concentrations

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) bioavailability to Hyalella azteca was determined in 97 sediments from six former manufactured-gas plants and two aluminum smelter sites. Measurements of Soxhlet extractable, rapidly released based on mild supercritical fluid extraction, and pore water dissolved concentrations of 18 parent and 16 groups of alkyl PAHs (PAH34) were used to predict 28 daysurvival based on equilibrium partitioning and hydrocarbon narcosis models. Total PAH concentrations had little relationship to toxicity. Amphipods survived in sediments with PAH34 concentrations as high as 2990 microg/g, while sediments as low as 2.4 microg/g of PAH34 resulted in significant mortality. Equilibrium partitioning using either total extractable or rapidly released concentrations significantly improved predictions. However, pore water PAH34 concentrations were best for predicting amphipod survival and correctly classified toxic and nontoxic sediment samples with an overall model efficiency of 90%. Alkyl PAHs accounted for 80% of the toxicity, demonstrating that careful measurement of the 16 alkyl clusters in pore water is required. Regression analysis of the pore water PAH34 data from 97 field sediments against amphipod survival resulted in a mean 50% lethal residue value of 33 micromol/g of lipid, consistent with 32 micromol/g of lipid for fluoranthene determined by others in controlled laboratory conditions, thus demonstrating the applicability of EPA's hydrocarbon narcosis model when using pore water PAH34 concentrations.     

Adsorption of nonionic aromatic compounds to single-walled carbon nanotubes: effects of aqueous solution chemistry

We systematically studied effects of pH, ionic strength, and presence of Cu2+ (50 mg/L) or a dissolved humic acid (HA, Fluka) (50 mg/L) on adsorption of three nonionic aromatic compounds, naphthalene, 1,3-dinitrobenzene, and 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene to single-walled carbon nanotubes. Presence of Cu2+ or variance in the ionic strength between 0.02 and 0.1 M (NaNO3) only slightly affected adsorption affinities. Presence of HA reduced adsorption of the three compounds by 29-57% for CNTs, as measured by change in distribution coefficient(Kd), and by 80-95% for graphite. In contrast to nonporous graphite, whose surface area was completely accessible in adsorption, CNTs formed aggregates with microporous interstices in aqueous solution, which blocked large HA molecules from competing with the surface area. Changing the pH from 2 to 11 did not affect adsorption of naphthalene, while it increased adsorption of 1,3-dinitrobenzene and 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene by 2-3 times. Increasing pH apparently facilitated deprotonation of the acidic functional groups (-COOH, -OH) of CNTs, which promoted the pi-electron-donor ability of the graphene surface, therefore enhancing pi-pi electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) interactions of the two nitroaromatics (pi-electron acceptors).     

Influence of smoking parameters on the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Danish smoked fish

A new method for the analysis of 25 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds in fish was developed, validated, and used for the quantification of PAHs in 180 industrially smoked fish products. The method included pressurized liquid extraction, gel-permeation chromatography (Bio-beads S-X3), solid-phase extraction (silica gel), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The sum concentration of 25 PAHs (∑PAH₂₅) was highest in smoked herring (n = 3) and mackerel fillets (n = 13), with an average concentration of 320 and 235 µg kg^?1, respectively. Lowest average ∑PAH₂₅ concentrations were obtained for indirectly smoked trout (26 µg kg^?1). Principal component analysis was used to correlate processing parameters to PAH concentrations and to identify the effects of these parameters. The analysis showed that for salmon hot-smoking conditions lead to higher ΣPAH₂₅ than cold smoking, and for other fish species direct smoking leads to higher ΣPAH₂₅ than indirect smoking. Also, the usage of common alder increases the PAH contamination compared with beech. The effects of smoking time, combustion temperatures, and two types of smoke-generating material on the ∑PAH₂₅ were also tested in a pilot plant study with smoked trout as a model fish. In addition to confirming that increased combustion temperatures and usage of common alder in comparison with beech increased ∑PAH₂₅, it was also revealed that the PAH concentration decreased in the order fish skin ? outer layer of the fish muscle > inner part of the fish muscle.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of European Union priority (EU 15+1) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from milks and milk powders in China

Dairy products, characterized by rich nutrition and unique flavor, occupy an increasing share of the human diet with the development of higher living standards. However, trace hazardous contaminants in dairy products, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), are arousing public concern. In this study, we investigated 82 milks and milk powders from Shanghai markets for the occurrence of 20 PAH, including 16 European Union priority (EU 15+1) PAH and 4 derivatives. Furthermore, we carried out a risk assessment of dietary exposure of PAHs from dairy products based on detection results and data on body weight and dietary intake obtained from questionnaires. Two assessment methods were used in this study: the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) and margin of exposure (MOE) methods. The ILCR of all age groups was 10^?6 to 10^?4, indicating a potential but acceptable carcinogenic risk. The MOE of the 4 groups (divided by age and sex) was >10⁴, indicating no significant carcinogenic risk of PAH exposure from dairy products. In both methods, children had the highest risk because of their greater consumption of dairy products, followed by seniors, young adults, and middle-aged adults. Results of this study provide reference data on the exposure level and health risk of PAHs from dairy product intake.     

Monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in food supplements containing botanicals and other ingredients on the Dutch market

Food supplements can contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has defined 16 priority PAH that are both genotoxic and carcinogenic and identified eight priority PAH (PAH8) or four of these (PAH4) as good indicators of the toxicity and occurrence of PAH in food. The current study aimed to determine benzo[a]pyrene and other EFSA priority PAH in different categories of food supplements containing botanicals and other ingredients. From 2003 to 2008, benzo[a]pyrene exceeded the limit of quantification (LOQ) in 553 (44%) of 1258 supplements with a lower-bound mean of 3.37?µg?kg^?1. In 2008 and 2009, benzo[a]pyrene and 12 other EFSA priority PAH were determined in 333 food supplements. Benzo[a]pyrene exceeded the LOQ in 210 (63%) food supplements with a lower-bound mean of 5.26?µg?kg^?1. Lower-bound mean levels for PAH4 and PAH8(-indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene) were 33.5 and 40.5?µg?kg^?1, respectively. Supplements containing resveratrol, Ginkgo biloba, St. John's wort and propolis showed relatively high PAH4 levels in 2008 and 2009. Before 2008, supplements with these ingredients and also dong quai, green tea or valerian contained relatively high benzo[a]pyrene levels. On average, PAH4 intake resulting from food supplement use will be at the lower end of the range of contributions of main food groups to PAH4 exposure, although individual food supplements can contribute significantly to PAH4 exposure. Regular control of EFSA indicator PAH levels in food supplements may prove a way forward to reduce further the intake of PAH from food.     

Chronic exposure to phenanthrene influences the spermatogenesis of male Sebastiscus marmoratus: U-shaped effects and the reason for them

Phenanthrene (PHE) is one of the most abundant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of PHE at environmentally relevant concentrations on testicular development in male Sebastiscus marmoratus. After 50 days exposure, the gonadosomatic indices and percentage of sperm produced showed a U-shaped dose response. The levels of salmon-type gonadotropin releasing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone mRNA, 17β-estradiol, and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase activity all showed a U-shaped dose response, which clearly demonstrated the U-shaped effects of PHE exposure on spermatogenesis and also elucidated the action pathway. This result would bring a difficulty and a challenge to any risk assessment of PHE exposure to the reproductive health of fishes. Thus far, there has been no ready explanation for a U-shaped dose-response curve, which is well recognized as a hormetic phenomenon for many hormones, drugs, and toxic compounds. In the present study, PHE accumulation in the brain showed an inverse U-shaped increase compared to the control. Glutathione S-transferase activity in the brain showed a U-shaped dose-response, which was related with the PHE accumulation. These results have given a reasonable explanation for the U-shaped dose-response via alteration of biotransformation enzyme activity in the brain.     

Sea breeze modulated volatilization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the Masnou Harbor (NW Mediterranean Sea)

Harbors, marinas, and coastal environments are impacted by important pollutant loadings, particularly of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Air-water exchange is an important process driving the environmental fate of organic pollutants in aquatic environments. However, its relevance as a factor affecting the environmental fate of pollutants from harbor sediments and waters has not been properly assessed, so far, except for few coastal environments. The objective of this study is to quantify the importance of volatilization losses of PAHs from harbor sediments and waters and to study the potential role of sea breeze as a modulator of air-water exchange in coastal environments. The results show that volatilization fluxes from a medium size marina located in the NW Mediterranean sea are relatively high in comparison to those observed in other aquatic systems, particularly for the low molecular weight (MW) compounds. This is consistent with PAHs profiles observed in harbor sediments, which are depleted by the lower MW hydrocarbons. Therefore, volatilization is an important loss of low MW PAHs such as phenanthrene, methyl phenanthrene, dibenzothiophene, etc. Indeed, these PAHs have a residence time of few days in the harbor waters and sediments. Finally, the diurnal trends in volatilization fluxes mimics that of the sea breeze influenced wind speed. These results show the important role that the diurnal sea breeze exerts on the environmental fate of pollutants such as PAHs in coastal environments as a modulator of air-water exchange and as a potential driver of transport of pollutants between adjacent coastal and terrestrial environments.     

Biopolymer nanoparticles: a strategy to enhance stability,bioavailability, and biological effects of phenolic compounds as functional ingredients

Phenolic compounds are abundant in nature and have multiple beneficial effects on human health due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antiallergenic, anticancer, and antiatherosclerotic properties. For this reason, phenolics are becoming relevant functional ingredients for several industries, mainly the food industry, derived from food consumer exigencies and regulations. However, the use of their beneficial properties still presents some limitations, such as chemical instability under environmental and processing conditions, which leads to structural changes and compromises their biological activities. They also present poor water solubility and sensitivity to pH changes, decreasing their bioavailability in the organism. The technologies for extraction and stabilization of these compounds have evolved rapidly in the development of different delivery systems to encapsulate sensitive active molecules. Biopolymeric nanoparticles are biodegradable polymer-based colloidal systems with sizes ranging from 1 to 1000 nm, and different techniques can be carried out to develop them. These systems have emerged as a green and effective alternative to improve stability, bioavailability, and biological effects of phenolic compounds. This comprehensive review aims to present an overview of recent advances in encapsulation processes of phenolic compounds within biopolymer nanoparticles as delivery systems and the impact on their physicochemical properties and biological effects after encapsulation. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.     

Atmospheric concentrations and deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the Mid-Atlantic East Coast region

Atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured at urban/industrial, suburban, coastal, and rural areas in New Jersey as part of the New Jersey Atmospheric Deposition Network. Concentrations of 36 PAH compounds were measured in the gas and particle phases in air and in precipitation at nine sites at regular intervals from October 1997 through May 2001. Gas-phase and particle-phase sigma36PAH concentrations ranged from 0.45 to 118 ng m(-3) and from 0.046 to 172 ng m(-3), respectively, and precipitation concentrations ranged from 11 to 16200 ng L(-1). PAH concentrations vary spatially across the region, with the highest concentrations occurring at the most heavily urban and industrial locations. Average gas absorption deposition ranged from 0.004 (naphthacene) to 5040 (methylphenanthrenes) ng m(-2) d(-1), and dry particle deposition PAH fluxes ranged from 0.11 (naphthacene) to 300 (benzo[b+k]fluoranthene) ng m(-2) d(-1) at the nine sites. Average atmospheric wet deposition PAH fluxes at the seven sites ranged from 0.40 (cyclopenta[cd]pyrene) to 140 (methylphenanthrenes) ng m(-2) d(-1). These represent the first comprehensive estimates of PAH deposition to New Jersey and the Mid-Atlantic East Coast.     

Sediment records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the continental shelf of China: implications for evolving anthropogenic impacts

Sources, compositions, and historical records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediment cores collected from the Yellow Sea and the South China Sea were analyzed to investigate the influence of anthropogenic activities. The occurrence of PAHs was mainly derived from various combustion sources, especially the combustion of biomass and domestic coal. Uniform composition of sedimentary PAHs (52-62% of phenanthrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, and benzo[g,h,i]perylene) suggested air-borne mixtures intractable to degradation. The concentrations of the sum of 15 PAHs (16 priority pollutants designed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency minus naphthalene; designed as Σ(15)PAH) in Yellow Sea sediment cores were generally higher than those in the South China Sea. The profiles of Σ(15)PAH concentrations recorded in the sediment cores closely followed historical socioeconomic development in China. In general, Σ(15)PAH concentrations started to increase from the background pollution level posed by agricultural economy at the turn of 20th century. In addition, a Σ(15)PAH concentration reduction was observed during the Chinese Civil War (1946-1949) and Great Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), suggesting them as setbacks for economic development in Chinese history. Increasing PAH emissions as a result of increasing coal combustion associated with the rapid urbanization and industrialization since the implementation of the Reform and Open Policy (since 1978) accounted for the fast growth of Σ(15)PAH concentrations in sediment cores. The decline of Σ(15)PAH concentrations from subsurface maximum until sampling time was inconsistent with current-day economic development in China, and may possibly suggest emission reductions due to decreasing proportional use of domestic coal and increasing consumption of cleaner energies (natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas).