Traditional consumption of and rearing edible insects in Africa,Asia and Europe

ABSTRACT

The traditional consumption of edible insects is common in one third of the world's population, mostly in Latin America, Africa and Asia. There are over one thousand identified species of insects eaten in some stage of their life cycle; and they play important roles in ensuring food security. The most common way to collect insects are from the wild, which is seasonal with limited availability and has an increasing demand resulting in a disruption to the ecosystem. There is a growing interest shown in rearing insects for commercial purposes, and an industrial scale production will be required to ensure steady supplies. Industrial production will need to take into account the living environment of insects, the nutritional composition of their feed and the overall efficiency of the production system. We provide a short overview on the consumption of and rearing insects in Africa, Asia and Europe. For Africa, a snapshot is given for Nigeria, Ghana, Central African Republic, Kenya and Uganda, while the following countries are reported for Asia: China, Japan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand and Vietnam. In addition, a list of insect species with the highest potential for food and feed in the European Union is provided with some reference to The Netherlands and Finland. The review concludes that there is need to better understand the rearing and farming procedures that will yield high quality edible insects in Africa, Asia and Europe.     

Safety of Novel Protein Sources (Insects,Microalgae, Seaweed,Duckweed, and Rapeseed) and Legislative Aspects for Their Application in Food and Feed Production

Novel protein sources (like insects, algae, duckweed, and rapeseed) are expected to enter the European feed and food market as replacers for animal‐derived proteins. However, food safety aspects of these novel protein sources are not well‐known. The aim of this article is to review the state of the art on the safety of major novel protein sources for feed and food production, in particular insects, algae (microalgae and seaweed), duckweed, and rapeseed. Potential hazards for these protein sources are described and EU legislative requirements as regard to food and feed safety are explained. Potential hazards may include a range of contaminants, like heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, as well as pathogens. Some safety aspects of novel protein sources are intrinsic to the product, but many potential hazards can also be due to production methods and processing conditions. These aspects should be considered in advance during product development. European law is unclear on several issues regarding the use of novel protein sources in food and feed products. For food product applications, the most important question for food producers is whether or not the product is considered a novel food. One of the major unclarities for feed applications is whether or not products with insects are considered animal‐derived products or not. Due to the unclarities in European law, it is not always clear which Regulation and maximum levels for contaminants apply. For market introduction, European legislation should be adjusted and clarified.     

食用昆虫资源的研究与开发进展

从食用昆虫的历史、食用昆虫的营养价值、保健功能和食用昆虫的产业化等方面介绍了食用昆虫资源开发的研究进展.目前,食用昆虫研发方面仍存在食用昆虫的营养成分分析不够透彻、开发投资力度不够、人们对昆虫的营养保健功能认识不足等主要问题.针对上述问题本文提出了几条解决对策：对食用昆虫营养保健作用加大宣传力度,以药用昆虫产业带动食用昆虫产业发展,大力开发昆虫保健食品,建议政府部门加大对食用昆虫开发的投资力度.     

Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking,sustainability consciousness,or food disgust?

This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods by consumers in Germany. The nationwide online survey (N = 516) focused on which factors have the greatest influence on the willingness to consume an insect burger and buffalo worms. In addition to sociodemographic factors, meat consumption and the “classical” variables in the field of entomophagy (familiarity, previous insect consumption, food technology neophobia and food neophobia), the study focuses in particular on the previously unconsidered variables sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness and food disgust. A total of 41.9% of the participants were willing to consume an insect burger. In contrast, only 15.9% of the participants were willing to consume the buffalo worms – a principal ingredient of the insect burger. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that food disgust was the most important predictor for the acceptance of edible insects, followed by previous insect consumption, food neophobia, gender, sensation seeking and food technology neophobia. The high influence of food disgust shows that not only the explicit disgust for insects is decisive for the consumer readiness of insect-based products, but also the domain specific disgust for food. Despite the strong sustainability awareness of our participants, and contrary to our expectations, sustainability consciousness did not prove to be a significant predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Implications for marketing strategies and educational interventions will be discussed.     

The use of edible insect proteins in food: Challenges and issues related to their functional properties

Over the past decade, the potential of edible insects as a novel ingredient in high value-added products has been investigated to find alternatives to conventional protein sources that are expensive, over-exploited and harmful to the environment. This review assesses the state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to consumption. More specifically, this review details the conventional procedures related to the production of insect flours as well as insect-derived ingredients such as protein concentrates and isolates. As a source of alternative protein in food ingredient formulations, the available data on the functionalities of edible insect ingredients is also examined and compared to conventional animal- and plant-based protein sources. Finally, the major challenges facing entomophagy in the mainstream food industry are explored. This review highlights the fact that insect proteins can serve as functional ingredients in food preparation. However, additional comparative studies are required to assess the functionality of various insect proteins compared to conventional proteins, regardless of processing method. To be incorporated into large scale industries, more research is needed to optimize processing methods to obtain the best compromise between cost-effectiveness, functionality, tastiness and sustainability, while ensuring consumer safety.     

Eat or not eat: an analysis of the status of entomophagy in Botswana

In Botswana, mopane worm Imbrasia belina Westwood is culturally accepted as food by people of different age groups from different regions and districts. However, there are several other insect that are anecdotally known to be edible in Botswana. To verify this, a study was conducted by means of a questionnaire and discussions among Batswana of different age groups from six districts in the country to obtain the names of insects that are known to be edible. A total of 27 insect species was identified. The study also investigated methods of collection, processing, precooking preparation, cooking methods, storage and recipes. Chi-square analysis showed that people’s knowledge of edible insects differed with districts and age groups. Older people were more familiar with uncommon edible insect compared to the younger generation. With the exception of mopane worm, the majority of the people interviewed, especially the young, had not eaten any of the species, despite knowing that they were edible. This shows that, apart from the use of mopane worm, entomophagy (the eating of insect by humans) as practiced among Batswana is declining. However, in the light of current decline in food production in Africa, especially in the arid regions of Botswana, insects may make a valuable contribution to the protein and calories of many peoples’ diets. A shift from traditional harvesting to mass production of insects has the potential to provide animal protein to humans through direct consumption or indirectly when used as livestock feed, and could reduce malnutrition.     

Tenebrio molitor as a source of interesting natural compounds,their recovery processes,biological effects,and safety aspects

Nowadays, it is urgent to produce in larger quantities and more sustainably to reduce the gap between food supply and demand. In a circular bioeconomy vision, insects receive great attention as a sustainable alternative to satisfy food and nutritional needs. Among all insects, Tenebrio molitor (TM) is the first insect approved by the European Food Safety Authority as a novel food in specific conditions and uses, testifying its growing relevance and potential. This review holistically presents the possible role of TM in the sustainable and circular solution to the growing needs for food and nutrients. We analyze all high value-added products obtained from TM (powders and extracts, oils and fatty acids, proteins and peptides, and chitin and chitosan), their recovery processes (evaluating the best ones in technical and environmental terms), their nutritional and economical values, and their biological effects. Safety aspects are also mentioned. TM potential is undoubted, but some aspects still need to be discussed, including the health effects of substances and microorganisms in its body, the optimal production conditions (that affect product quality and safety), and TM capacity to convert by-products into new products. Environmental, economic, social, and market feasibility studies are also required to analyze the new value chains. Finally, to unlock the enormous potential of edible insects as a source of nutritious and sustainable food, it will be necessary to overcome the cultural, psychological, and regulatory barriers still present in Western countries.     

可食用昆虫资源的利用历史、现状及展望

可食用昆虫作为补充食品，为农村地区的人口提供了重要的营养、经济和生态价值。本文综述了可食用昆虫资源的研究进展，包括可食用昆虫资源的利用历史、在全球的种类与分布、东西方国家对此的态度倾向等，并根据目前的现状，就可食用昆虫食品的开发利用提出了一些合理化的建议。     

昆虫源食物的开发利用

昆虫是一种新型食物资源,该文从食用昆虫的历史、营养价值及其产业化开发等方面介绍食用昆虫资源开发的研究进展,并探讨了其在食品工业、饲料工业中的应用。结合近年国内研究进展,对昆虫的开发利用进行展望。     

Forest biomass waste as a potential innovative source for rearing edible insects for food and feed – A review

Worldwide, huge quantities of organic wastes are generated annually in the forest industry, but most of these wastes are discarded. Only a minor proportion is used, mainly for biofuel and secondarily for compost production. Simultaneously, demand for more and new food products is increasing due to rapid growth in the global population. In recent years, use of edible insects has been proposed as one promising solution to an upcoming food supply crisis. The rearing of insects for human food and livestock feed has some significant advantages, like high protein content, effective feed conversion rate, low greenhouse gas emissions and low water requirements. The aim of this review was to compile up-to-date information on rearing edible insects for food and feed and to investigate the potential use of forest biomass waste as a new substrate for insect rearing.     

Minced meat-like products from mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor and Alphitobius diaperinus): microbial dynamics during production and storage

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the production process as well as the storage conditions (air, 60% CO₂/40% N₂) on the microbial counts and the bacterial community composition of a minced meat-like product from yellow mealworm larvae (YM) and from lesser mealworm larvae (LM). It was necessary to design a different production process for each larva type in order to obtain a minced meat-like product. Both production methods had an effect on the microbiota of the finished products, and that effect was extended during storage. Immediately after production, YM and LM showed aerobic counts between 1.4 and 2.3 log cfu/g and between 2.0 and 3.6 log cfu/g, respectively. The bacterial community composition differed between both products. The use of modified atmosphere during storage reduced bacterial growth compared to storage in air. In conclusion, the study points out that for the two insect types considered, it is possible to obtain a minced meat-like product with low microbial numbers and a potential shelf life that is attractive to retailers and consumers.Industrial relevanceThe consumption of traditional meat sources is under pressure due to its high environmental impact. Entomophagy (the consumption of insects by humans) can be one of the solutions to the globally increasing protein demand. However, in Western countries, some aversion for edible insects still exists. In those markets, people prefer the inclusion of insects in an invisible way into familiar food products. In order to stimulate the implementation of edible insects in the Western market, new insect-based products were developed that closely resemble a very popular meat product, being minced meat. Recent studies showed that fresh edible insects contain a high number of spoilage organisms and potential food pathogens. Therefore, monitoring the dynamics of the microbiota during preparation and storage of the new insect-based products is of utmost importance. We were able to produce end products with low microbial numbers that could be kept low during storage, especially by the use of modified atmosphere packaging.     

论中国食品安全监管机制的完善路径

《中华人民共和国食品安全法(修订草案)》将采用最严格的规定监管食品安全,但却没有将食用农产品纳入草案的监管范围,这无疑给食品监管留下了漏洞。将食用农产品纳入草案监管,在立法上不存在障碍,但因之会带来政府执法能力不足、执法成本提高、执法措施出现缺陷等一系列现实问题。因此,解决该问题的关键不在于立法,而在于立法后如何实现食用农产品的有效监管。文章探讨了问题存在的内在原因,提出了采用食品安全四方合力分类管理制度,以完善现有监管制度。     

Termites as human foods—A comprehensive review

Global food production is anticipated to rise along with the growth of the global population. As a result, creative solutions must be devised to ensure that everyone has access to nutritious, affordable, and safe food. Consequently, including insects in diets has the potential to improve global food and nutrition security. This paper aims to share recent findings by covering edible termites as the main aspect, from their consumption record until consumer acceptance. A total of 53 termite species are reported as edible ones and distributed in 6 biogeographic realms. Generally, termites have a nutrient composition that is suitable for human consumption, and cooked termites are a better dietary choice than their raw counterparts. Besides, increasing customer interest in eating termite-based food can be achieved by making it more palatable and tastier through various cooking processes, that is, boiling, frying, grilling, roasting, smoking, and sun-drying. Moreover, edible termites can also be used as a new source of medication by exhibiting antimicrobial activity. Regarding their advantages, it is strongly encouraged to implement a seminatural rearing system to sustain the supply of edible termites. Overall, this paper makes it evident that termites are an important natural resource for food or medicine. Hence, the long-term objective is to stimulate scientific inquiry into the potential of edible insects as an answer to the problem of global food security.     

European and German Food Legislation Facing Uncommon Foodstuffs

In Europe, uncommon foodstuff (UFS, i.e., traditional foods from specific European regions and uncommon ethnic foods from non-EU countries) have been contributing to a diversification of the food supply. E-commerce and specialized retail shops are the main sources for UFS. This article discusses the legal bases for UFS introduction and evaluation. By means of 35 representative UFS, this article analyses the possibilities of trade and veterinary inspection of these products in Germany, comparing European Union and national food legislation with the many idiosyncrasies the UFS presents. Conservatory legislation bans the trade with endangered species (primates, cetaceans, songbirds), but for many other species, this is a complex matter that may ban only subpopulations from trade. Although introduction of legal UFS is regulated (yet complicated), the lack of appropriate definitions, intra-European trade harmonization, and of sufficient scientific knowledge hampers a satisfactory evaluation of many UFSs, for example, reptile meat or terrestrial insects. In these cases, official inspection would only be very basic.     

Americans’ acceptance of black soldier fly larvae as food for themselves,their dogs,and farmed animals

This paper investigates consumer attitudes towards Hermetia illucens larvae (aka Black Soldier Fly Larvae; BSFL) and other insects in two forms: dried whole insects and insect flour incorporated into a familiar food. In two studies, we assessed the willingness of American adults to try eating them directly, eating animals fed on them, and feeding them to their pet dog. Participants were significantly more willing to try food made with insect flour than to eat the whole insects, with the same pattern emerging for acceptability of insects in dog food. BSFL were roughly as acceptable as other insects (crickets, mealworms, ants). On average, participants had negative attitudes towards eating BSFL on their own, but the majority were willing to try foods containing BSFL in the form of insect flour or rendered fat. There are also suggestions in the data that indirect routes of consumption (e.g., consuming animals that have eaten insects, or feeding insects to one’s dog) are more acceptable than direct consumption. Our results suggest that BSFL are relatively well-received by consumers and are a promising alternative to the farmed animals more commonly used in pet food.     

Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy

Background: According to many recent studies, the use of insects as food seems to be convenient, sustainable, economical and healthy. The objective of this study is to analyze the possible effects of insect consumption on human and animal health. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was performed using the PubMed, Scopus and CAB databases. Results: Of the 6026 items initially retrieved, 70 were eligible for inclusion; 40 studies analyzed the use of insects in human foods or drugs, while 30 analyzed the use of insects in animal feed. In humans, the most commonly analyzed risks are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, chemical and microbiological contamination and allergy risk. Studies of animals focus on growth alteration, nutrient malabsorption and hematic and qualitative meat alteration. Conclusion: In recent years, researchers have shifted their focus from the possible use of edible insects in animal feed to their use as possible nutrient sources for humans. The results suggest that, if properly treated and preserved, products derived from insects are safe and efficient sources of nutrients for animals. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible effects of prolonged insect consumption on human health.     

全球有机茶消费概况及中国的出口机遇

全球有机食品消费在快速增长,且消费市场主要集中在欧洲、北美和日本等发达国家或地区。本文概括了全球有机食品的消费需求概况,重点分析了欧盟、美国和日本三大消费市场的有机茶消费特征。研究表明,中国的有机茶出口面临着激烈的全球竞争,同时也面临着严峻的挑战。最后提出了中国有机茶开拓国际市场的政策建议。     

Disgust,sushi consumption,and other predictors of acceptance of insects as food by Americans and Indians

Insects are an important human food source, especially in developing countries, because of their efficiency at converting plant foods into animal protein, and their relatively low environment impact. The present study builds on some prior research on eating insects by surveying Indian and American adults. A composite measure of insect acceptance is developed. The results confirm prior findings that Americans are more accepting of insects as a potential food than Indians, and that men are more accepting than women. Substantially more Indians than Americans consider insect ingestion a violation of a protected/sacred value, suggesting a moral objection. Attitudes to and beliefs about insects and insect consumption are decomposed through factor analysis into the same five factors in both countries: Benefits, Risks, Disgust, Religion, and Suffering. Multiple regression indicates that for Americans, Disgust is the major predictor, followed by Benefits. For Indians, the best predictor is Benefits, followed by Disgust and Religion. In both countries, frequency of sushi consumption (a food commonly met with disgust when it was first introduced) is also a significant and substantial predictor of insect acceptance.     

Edible Insects Processing: Traditional and Innovative Technologies

Insects are part of the human diet in many parts of the world. Their nutritional value is widely recognized. Currently, most edible insects are harvested from the wild, although semi‐domestication and indoor farming have increased insect availability and the sustainability of production. In traditional cultures, insects are processed in a number of ways (steaming, roasting, smoking, frying, stewing, and curing, among others) to improve their sensory and nutritional qualities as well as their shelf‐life. In order to increase consumer interest in the West, various technologies have been developed that are aimed primarily at using insects as ingredients in a non‐recognizable form, such as powders or flour. These technologies include drying (sun‐drying, freeze‐drying, oven‐drying, fluidized bed drying, and microwave‐drying) and new processing methods (ultrasound‐assisted extraction, cold atmospheric pressure plasma, and dry fractionation) designed mainly for protein, fat, and/or chitin extraction. Insect‐based ingredients are sold for the production of cookies, chocolates, tortilla‐style chips, and other snacks. This review focuses on edible insect production, processing technologies, and commercialization using strategies ranging from traditional to novel as a sustainable approach for improving food security worldwide.     

Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects

Insects, a traditional food in many parts of the world, are highly nutritious and especially rich in proteins and thus represent a potential food and protein source. A compilation of 236 nutrient compositions in addition to amino acid spectra and fatty acid compositions as well as mineral and vitamin contents of various edible insects as derived from literature is given and the risks and benefits of entomophagy are discussed. Although the data were subject to a large variation, it could be concluded that many edible insects provide satisfactorily with energy and protein, meet amino acid requirements for humans, are high in MUFA and/or PUFA, and rich in several micronutrients such as copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, selenium, and zinc as well as riboflavin, pantothenic acid, biotin, and in some cases folic acid. Liabilities of entomophagy include the possible content of allergenic and toxic substances as well as antinutrients and the presence of pathogens. More data are required for a thorough assessment of the nutritional potential of edible insects and proper processing and decontamination methods have to be developed to ensure food safety.