Ultra-thin atomic layer deposited TiN films: non-linear I-V behaviour and the importance of surface passivation

We report the electrical resistivity of atomic layer deposited TiN thin films in the thickness range 2.5-20 nm. The measurements were carried out using the circular transfer length method structures. For the films with thickness in the range of 10-20 nm, the measurements exhibited linear current-voltage (I-V) curves. The sheet resistance R(sh) was determined, and the resistivity was calculated. A value of 120 microohms-cm was obtained for a 20 nm TiN layer. With decreasing film thickness, the resistivity slightly increased and reached 135 microohms-cm for a 10 nm film. However, the measurements on 2.5-5.0 nm thick films revealed non-linear I-V characteristics, implying the dependence of the measured resistance, and therefore the resistivity, of the layers on applied voltage. The influence of the native oxidation due to the exposure of the films to air was taken into account. To fully eliminate this oxidation, a highly-resistive amorphous silicon layer was deposited directly after the ALD of TiN. The electrical measurements on the passivated 2.5- and 3.5 nm TiN layers then exhibited linear I-V characteristics. A resistivity of 400 and 310 microohms-cm was obtained for a 2.5- and 3.5 nm TiN film, respectively.     

Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Submicron-Thick Films Deposited on Substrates by Modified ac Calorimetry (Laser-Heating Ångstrom Method)

Technological development, especially in microelectronics, necessitates the development of new and improved methods for measuring the thermal properties of materials, especially in the form of ultrathin films. Previously, modified ac calorimetry (laser-heating Ångstrom method) using a scanning laser as the energy source was developed and shown to provide accurate values of thermal diffusivity and derived thermal conductivity for a broad range of materials in the form of free-standing thin sheets or films, wires including fiber bundles, and some films on substrates. This paper describes further applications of the modified ac-calorimetry technique for measurements of the thermal conductivity of thin films deposited on substrates. It was used to measure successfully the thermal conductivities of 1000- to 3000-Å-thick aluminum nitride films, aluminum oxide films, etc., which were deposited on a glass substrate. It was also shown to be suitable for developmental measurements on submicron-thick chromatic films deposited on a PET substrate, which are photothermal recording layers, used in the media of CD-R drives of computer systems.     

Correlation between structural and electrical properties of ZnO thin films

Thin ZnO films were deposited by radio frequency (r.f.) and direct current (d.c.) magnetron sputtering techniques onto glass substrates. Microstructural and electrical properties of ZnO films were studied using X-ray diffractometer (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and resistivity measurements. It was found that the size of the crystallites in the d.c. deposited films increased with increasing film thickness, while the crystallite size of r.f. deposited films remained unchanged. The d.c. deposited grains also had much stronger orientation related to the substrate than the r.f. films. XRD data indicated that the thin films with d<350 nm for r.f. and <750 nm for d.c. films have a very high degree of ZnO nonstoichiometry. This agreed well with the conductivity measurements and R(T) behaviour of the films with different resistance R. It was also found that the electrical resistivity of the samples increased exponentially with the thickness of films.     

Thermal Characterization of SiC Amorphous Thin Films

The cross-plane thermal conductivity of SiC amorphous films was measured employing the transient thermoreflectance technique. The SiC films were deposited on silicon substrates by RF magnetron sputtering at room temperature. The thickness of the films was varied in the range from 100?nm to 2500?nm to analyze the size effect. The results found that the thermal conductivity of the SiC thin films is significantly smaller than that of the SiC material in bulk form. The small thermal conductivity stems from the structural disorder of the films, which was confirmed by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. In addition, the contribution of the thermal boundary resistance to the thermal conductivity of the films is discussed.     

Transparent and highly conductive liquid-phase exfoliated graphite films treated with low-temperature air-annealing

This article presents a novel and simple method of liquid-phase exfoliation to fabricate graphene films that possess high conductivity and good light transparency. Graphite was exfoliated in water–ethanol mixture, with the aid of Nafion, to give highly stable graphene dispersion. Transparent graphene thin films were easily deposited by vacuum filtration from the Nafion-stabilized graphene dispersion. More important, low-temperature air-annealing (at 250 °C for 2 h) was employed to treat freshly-prepared graphene films for the first time. It demonstrates that the technique is advantageous and quite efficient for the fabrication of exfoliated graphite films with defect-free structure and high purity, confirmed by TEM, SEM, FTIR, XPS, and Raman spectra. The resulting graphene films possess a sheet resistance lower than 2.86 kΩ sq⁻¹ and optical transmittance over 84% at a typical wavelength of 550 nm.     

Electrical characterization of graphene synthesized by chemical vapor deposition using Ni substrate

In this work, the electrical characterization of graphene films grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) on a Ni thin film is carried out and a simple relation between the gate-dependent electrical transport and the thickness of the films is presented. Arrays of two-terminal devices with an average graphene film thickness of 6.9 nm were obtained using standard fabrication techniques. A simple two-band model is used to describe the graphene films, with a band overlap parameter E(0) = 17 meV determined by the dependence of conductivity on temperature. Statistical electrical measurement data are presented for 126 devices, with an extracted average background conductivity σ = 0.91 mS, average carrier mobility μ = 1300 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) and residual resistivity ρ = 1.65 kΩ. The ratio of mobility to conductivity is calculated to be inversely proportional to the graphene film thickness and this calculation is statistically verified for the ensemble of 126 devices. This result is a new method of graphene film thickness determination and is useful for films which cannot have their thickness measured by AFM or optical interference, but which are electrically contacted and gated. This general approach provides a framework for comparing graphene devices made using different fabrication methods and graphene growth techniques, even without prior knowledge of their uniformity or thickness.     

The effect of linear thermal expansion on the temperature coefficient of resistance of double-layer thin metallic films

A general theoretical expression for the temperature coefficient of resistance of double-layer thin metallic films, based on the well known Fuchs-Sondheimer model, is derived. This expression includes the linear thermal expansion coefficients and Poisson's ratios of the double layers and the substrate, also the film dimensions and temperature coefficient of resistance of the double-layer thin film, with and without the thermal expansion of both the film layers and the substrate. Numerical calculations are carried out for gold-silver double-layer films deposited on a glass substrate, where variations in the temperature coefficient of resistance depending on thermal expansion are studied as a function of reduced film thickness. The computed numerical results, using the derived new expression for the temperature coefficient of resistance of the double-layer thin metallic films, show that the thermal expansion decreases the value of the temperature coefficient of resistance.     

Influence of interfaces on impedance response and breakdown of oxide-metal multilayer structures

We report on the enhancement in impedance and the break-down behavior of room temperature deposited single and multi-layer metal/oxide films of comparable thicknesses. Aluminum-alumina and chromium-chrome oxide thin film structures grown by sputtering were explored as model systems in this study. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements showed that the resistance of the structure increases with an increase in the number of metal/oxide bi-layers while the total thickness was kept constant. The resistance of the multi-layer system was over an order of magnitude higher than the single bi-layer for an equivalent total thickness for the case of thin film Al-Al₂O₃. In addition, potentiodynamic polarization measurements exhibited a consistent and reproducible improvement in the break-down potential with an increase in the number of layers. Similar results are obtained for the case of the chromium-chromium oxide bi-layer system as well. Combination of interfaces and lateral current spreading in the multi-layer structure leads to superior overall break-down resistance suggesting the concept of in-situ sacrificial layers for corrosion protection.     

Dependence of transport parameters on thickness in polycrystalline CdS thin films

Polycrystalline CdS thin films of different thickness heavily doped with indium were deposited onto glass substrates by vacuum evaporation of CdS and indium. The films were characterized by Hall measurements and scanning electron microscopy observations. The variations in conductivity, carrier concentration and mobility with the film thickness are similar to the dependence of the grain size on the thickness. The deduced dependences of the electrical parameters on the grain size show the trends characteristic of polycrystalline semiconductor which are explained by the boundary carrier trapping theory. Thus, the polycrystalline origin of the thickness dependence of the electrical parameters in heavily doped CdS films is concluded.     

In situ strain monitoring of fiber-reinforced polymers using embedded piezoresistive nanocomposites

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) structures and components are highly susceptible to damage due to delamination, matrix cracking, inter-laminar fracture, and debonding, all of which have potential to cause catastrophic structural failure. While numerous sensing technologies have been developed and embedded in FRP composites for monitoring strain, they serve as defects and can promote damage formation and propagation. Thus, in this study, an alternative technique is proposed for in situ strain monitoring of FRP composites via layer-by-layer multi-walled carbon nanotube-polyelectrolyte thin films deposited directly upon glass fiber weaves. To date, these carbon nanotube-based thin films have been validated for their piezoresistivity. The objective of this study is to characterize the strain sensing performance of different thickness thin films deposited on glass fiber weaves and embedded in FRP specimens using time-domain two-point probe resistance and frequency-domain electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. From the experimental thin film electromechanical response, a new method for fitting using a cubic smoothing spline is implemented and is compared to linear least-squares fitting. The results show that the cubic spline fit is better suited for capturing the strain sensitivities (or gage factors) of these thin films within the time- and frequency-domains along with the variation of strain sensitivity with applied strain. The bulk resistance response is described by the DC resistance measurements, whereas the EIS measurements provide insight of the inter-nanotube response.     

Ultrathin oxide films by atomic layer deposition on graphene

In this paper, a method is presented to create and characterize mechanically robust, free-standing, ultrathin, oxide films with controlled, nanometer-scale thickness using atomic layer deposition (ALD) on graphene. Aluminum oxide films were deposited onto suspended graphene membranes using ALD. Subsequent etching of the graphene left pure aluminum oxide films only a few atoms in thickness. A pressurized blister test was used to determine that these ultrathin films have a Young's modulus of 154 ± 13 GPa. This Young's modulus is comparable to much thicker alumina ALD films. This behavior indicates that these ultrathin two-dimensional films have excellent mechanical integrity. The films are also impermeable to standard gases suggesting they are pinhole-free. These continuous ultrathin films are expected to enable new applications in fields such as thin film coatings, membranes, and flexible electronics.     

磁控溅射制备纳米TiO2薄膜导电性的研究

研究了在纳米厚度范围内，TiO2薄膜的导电性与薄膜厚度和基底材料的关系。利用射频磁控溅射方法，使用高纯Ti(99．99％)靶，通入Ar和O2的混合气体，制备了TiO2薄膜，薄膜膜厚15—225nm,在室温下测量了不同厚度TiO2薄膜的电阻率，发现TiO2薄膜的导电性，先后在导体、半导体和绝缘体范围变化。这归因于基底材料与TiO2的功函数不同，导致了界面电子的转移，功函数差决定了电子转移的深度。     

Effect of microwaves on synthesis of MoS2 and WS2

The present work was aimed on utilizing the solid state microwave synthetic method for the growth of molybdenum disulphide (MoS₂) and tungsten disulphide (WS₂) in powder as well as in the form of thin films. It was observed that the microwave exposure of simple powder mixture of Mo (or W) and S could not lead to the formation of MoS₂ (or WS₂).Therefore the work was pursued by the study of the possibility to use this technique to grow thin films. Either Mo or W in the form of thin foils or Mo layers deposited by sputtering onto glass substrates was used as metal source. These metal samples were introduced with some sulphur into a Pyrex tube and sealed under vacuum. After microwave oven exposure the formation of polycrystalline 2H-WS₂ with well-defined grains was confirmed by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. Mo foil as well as Mo layers deposited on glass showed formation of MoS₂ under the limit of our experimental conditions that is to say homogeneous thin films can be achieved only as small surface films.     

Conductivity of nanometer TiO2 thin films by magnetron sputtering

The conductivity of nanometer TiO₂ thin films was presented in this paper. The dependence of the conductivity of TiO₂ thin films on the thickness of the film and the substrate material were educed. The TiO₂ films were deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering of a Ti targets in an Ar+O₂ mixture in a conventional sputtering reactor. The thickness of the films deposited on Ti varied in the range from 15 to 225 nm. The resistivity of the films was measured at room temperature in the air. It was found that the conductivity of TiO₂ thin films varies in the range from conductor, semiconductor to nonconductor. This was attributed to electrons transfer at the interface between the TiO₂ and substrates, and the depth of electrons transfer was determined by the difference of work function.     

Coalescence of magnetron-sputtered silver islands affected by transition metal seeding (Ni, Cr, Nb, Zr, Mo, W, Ta) and other parameters

Silver thin films were deposited on various base layers using magnetron sputtering. The onset of coalescence of silver islands was evaluated using in situ conductivity measurements. The substrates included glass and silicon, with base layers of ZnO:Al 4 at.% at various thickness and additional thin seed layers of transition metals. It is shown that certain conditions promote coalescence, and in particular the following seed conditions: tungsten (1.0 nm), molybdenum (0.1 nm), zirconium (0.5 nm), and nickel (0.1-0.2 nm). In the absence of transition metal seeding, earlier onset of coalescence occurred at the thinnest of the ZnO:Al 4 at.% base layers (5 nm) and the lowest sputtering power (50 W), indicating that the substrate-film system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium.     

SiO2层上沉积的纳米多晶硅薄膜及其特性

采用低压化学气相沉积(LPCVD)系统以高纯SiH4为气源,在p型10.16 cm<100>晶向单晶硅衬底SiO2层上制备纳米多晶硅薄膜,薄膜沉积温度为620℃,沉积薄膜厚度分别为30 nm、63 nm和98 nm.对不同薄膜厚度的纳米多晶硅薄膜分别在700℃、800℃和900℃下进行高温真空退火.通过X射线衍射(XRD)、Raman光谱、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)和原子力显微镜(AFM)对SiO2层上沉积的纳米多晶硅薄膜进行特性测试和表征,随着薄膜厚度的增加,沉积态薄膜结晶显著增强,择优取向为<111>晶向.通过HP4145B型半导体参数分析仪对沉积态掺硼纳米多晶硅薄膜电阻I-V特性测试发现,随着薄膜厚度的增加,薄膜电阻率减小,载流子迁移率增大.     

磁控溅射制备纳米TiO2薄膜导电性的研究

研究了在纳米厚度范围内,TiO₂薄膜的导电性与薄膜厚度和基底材料的关系.利用射频磁控溅射方法,使用高纯Ti(99.99％)靶,通入Ar和O₂的混合气体,制备了TiO₂薄膜,薄膜膜厚15～225nm.在室温下测量了不同厚度TiO₂薄膜的电阻率,发现TiO₂薄膜的导电性,先后在导体、半导体和绝缘体范围变化.这归因于基底材料与TiO₂的功函数不同,导致了界面电子的转移,功函数差决定了电子转移的深度.     

Near-field microwave scanning probe imaging of conductivity inhomogeneities in CVD graphene

We have performed near-field scanning microwave microscopy (SMM) of graphene grown by chemical vapor deposition. Due to the use of probe-sample capacitive coupling and a relatively high ac frequency of a few GHz, this scanning probe method allows mapping of local conductivity without a dedicated counter electrode, with a spatial resolution of about 50?nm. Here, the coupling was enabled by atomic layer deposition of alumina on top of graphene, which in turn enabled imaging both large-area films, as well as micron-sized islands, with a dynamic range covering a low sheet resistance of a metal film and a high resistance of highly disordered graphene. The structures of graphene grown on Ni films and Cu foils are explored, and the effects of growth conditions are elucidated. We present a simple general scheme for interpretation of the contrast in the SMM images of our graphene samples and other two-dimensional conductors, which is supported by extensive numerical finite-element modeling. We further demonstrate that combination of the SMM and numerical modeling allows quantitative information about the sheet resistance of graphene to be obtained, paving the pathway for characterization of graphene conductivity with a sub-100?nm special resolution.     

Depth dependent properties of ITO thin films grown by pulsed DC sputtering

A systematically prepared set of ITO layers for solar cell applications has been analyzed by spectroscopic variable angle ellipsometry in order to trace the dependence of free carriers’ distribution along the film depth as a function of film thickness as well as its change upon annealing. Samples were deposited on silicon substrates with various thicknesses in steps of approximately 10–20 nm. This set was duplicated and these samples were annealed, so that for each thickness an as-deposited and an annealed sample is available. Conventionally measured electrical conductivity and morphological properties (AFM measurements) of the films have been compared with the optical constants’ inhomogeneity, i.e. material properties along the film thickness modelled by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsometry. The obtained results show that the optical as well as electrical properties of thin ITO films prepared by pulsed DC sputtering are depth dependent. For the deposition conditions used a well-determined reproducible non-uniform distribution of free carriers within the film thickness was determined. In particular it has been found that the majority of free carriers in as-deposited ultra-thin ITO films is concentrated at sample half-depth, while their distribution becomes asymmetric for the thicker films, with a maximum located at approximately 40 nm depth. The distribution of free carriers in annealed samples is qualitatively different from that of as-deposited layers.     

Development of electrodeposited ZnTe layers as window materials in ZnTe/CdTe/CdHgTe multi-layer solar cells

Zinc telluride (ZnTe) thin films have been deposited on glass/conducting glass substrates using a low-cost electrodeposition method. The resulting films have been characterized using various techniques in order to optimize growth parameters. X-ray diffraction (XRD) has been used to identify the phases present in the films. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell and optical absorption measurements have been performed to determine the electrical conductivity type, and the bandgap of the layers, respectively. It has been confirmed by XRD measurement that the deposited layers mainly consist of ZnTe phases. The PEC measurements indicate that the ZnTe layers are p-type in electrical conduction and optical absorption measurements show that their bandgap is in the range 2.10–2.20 eV. p-Type ZnTe window materials have been used in CdTe based solar cell structures, following new designs of graded bandgap multi-layer solar cells. The structures of FTO/ZnTe/CdTe/metal and FTO/ZnTe/CdTe/CdHgTe/metal have been investigated. The results are presented in this paper using observed experimental data.