Three Dimensional Modeling of the Plasma Spray Process

Results of simulations of three-dimensional (3D) temperature and flow fields inside and outside of a DC arc plasma torch in steady state are presented with transverse particle and carrier gas injection into the plasma jet. The results show that an increase of the gas flow rate at constant current moves the anode arc root further downstream leading to higher enthalpy and velocity at the exit of the torch anode, and stronger mixing effects in the jet region. An increase of the arc current with constant gas flow rate shortens the arc, but increases the enthalpy and velocity at the exit of the torch nozzle, and leads to longer jets. 3D features of the plasma jet due to the 3D starting conditions at the torch exit and, in particular, due to the transverse carrier gas and particle injection, as well as 3D trajectories and heating histories of sprayed particles are also discussed.     

等离子喷枪的注气方式对电弧不稳定性的影响

基于局域热力学平衡假设,建立三维非稳态的磁流体动力学模型,在给定气流量和工作电流的条件下,采用数值模拟方法研究不同注气方式对直流非转移弧等离子喷枪内Ar-H2等离子电弧的波动行为和等离子特性的影响。结果表明,与直流进气相比较,采用旋转方式进气时,喷枪内等离子体流的流线呈现出明显的螺旋状分布,电弧波动信号呈现出更高的平均电压和较高波动频率,电弧附着随时间变化呈现出圆周运动现象;喷枪内等离子体的最大温度出现在阴极尖端附近,采用旋转方式注气时等离子平均最大温度较低,而等离子体的速度沿中心轴方向呈现出先增加后减小的趋势。喷枪出口处等离子体的温度与速度同样显示出波动分布,两种进气方式得到的温度分布基本相似,采用旋转方式注气时等离子平均最大速度分布相对较高。     

Electric Characteristics of Plasma Arc Produced by Bi-Anode Torch

In order to improve the voltage control and stability of a plasma arc, a new-type plasma torch was designed and constructed. The torch, called bi-anode torch, has two anodes that were inter-insulated and have different distances from the cathode tip. The position of the arc root can be controlled to attach to either anode surface during operation to obtain a low-voltage and high-fluctuation arc or a high-voltage and low-fluctuation arc. The paper discussed the occurrence of the double-arc phenomenon and its prevention. Experimental work has been carried out to compare voltage-current (U-I) characteristic of the arc when using different plasma gases and anode arc root attaching to different anode surfaces. The results show that the U-I characteristic of the plasma arc is affected by the position of the anode arc root attachment and the composition of the plasma gas, which was explained by a simplified arc model.     

Comparisons of Two Models for the Simulation of a DC Arc Plasma Torch

The hypothesis of local thermal equilibrium (LTE) in thermal plasma has been widely accepted. Most of the simulation models for the arc plasma torch are based on the hypothesis of LTE and its results indicate good validity to mimic the pattern of plasma flow inside a plasma torch. However, according to the LTE hypothesis, electrical conductivity near electrodes is significantly lower because of the low gas temperature. Consequently, it is difficult for electrical current flows to pass between the anode and cathode. Therefore, the key subject for a model concentrating on the LTE assumption is to deal with the low electrical conductivity near the electrodes. In this study, two models determining the electrical conductivity at the vicinity of the electrodes with two different assumptions were used to calculate the flow patterns inside a non-transferred DC arc plasma torch. Gas temperature, velocity, voltage drop, and heat energy of the plasma arc were compared between the two models. The results indicated that the plasma arc inside the plasma torch fluctuates, as simulated by both models. It seems that the model can obtain comparable accuracy with the experimental results if the plasma gas electrical conductivity is determined by nominal electron temperature.     

Modeling the restrike mode operation of a DC plasma spray torch

A key aspect of the operation of conventional non-transferred direct current (dc) plasma torches is the random motion of the arc inside the nozzle. Various plasma gun designs have been developed to limit the arc fluctuations without increasing the heat load to the anode wall that results in surface erosion and anode wear. However, construction of these plasma torches is highly complex, while the conventional dc plasma torch consists of a small number of elements and is simple to manufacture and maintain. A better understanding of the behavior of the arc-anode attachment and how it depends on operating conditions may help in the design and operation of conventional plasma torches so that the fluctuation of the time-voltage, and therefore the time-enthalpy variation, is as low as possible with a fluctuation frequency adapted to the time characteristic of the powder particles in the plasma jet. This study deals with a three-dimensional (3D) time-dependent modeling of the arc and plasma generation in such a torch operating under the so-called “restrike” mode. The latter is characterized by rather large voltage fluctuations, corresponding to a broad range of conditions used in the manufacturing of plasma coatings. The mathematical model is based on the simultaneous solution of the conservation equations of mass, momentum, energy, electric current, and electromagnetic equations. These make it possible to predict the effect of operating parameters of the plasma torch on the motion of the anode root attachment over the anode surface and the time-evolution of arc voltage and flow fields in the nozzle. This article was originally published inBuilding on 100 Years of Success: Proceedings of the 2006 International Thermal Spray Conference (Seattle, WA), May 15–18, 2006, B.R. Marple, M.M. Hyland, Y.-Ch. Lau, R.S. Lima, and J. Voyer, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2006.     

Effects of Anode Arc Root Fluctuation on Coating Quality During Plasma Spraying

To obtain a coating of high quality, a new type of plasma torch was designed and constructed to increase the stability of the plasma arc and reduce the air entrainment into the plasma jet. The torch, called bi-anode torch, generates an elongated arc with comparatively high arc voltage and low arc fluctuation. Spraying experiments were carried out to compare the quality of coatings deposited by a conventional torch and a bi-anode torch. Alumina coatings and tungsten carbide coatings were prepared to appraise the heating of the sprayed particles in the plasma jets and the entrainment of the surrounding air into the plasma jets, respectively. The results show that anode arc root fluctuation has only a small effect on the melting rate of alumina particles. On the other hand, reduced air entrainment into the plasma jet of the bi-anode torch will drastically reduce the decarbonization of tungsten carbide coatings.     

Fluid dynamic effects on plasma torch anode erosion

Anode erosion in plasma spray torches results in coating deterioration. The usable life of a torch anode is strongly dependent on the fluid dynamic behavior of the plasma inside the torch, which in turn depends on the geometric design of the anode and the operating parameters. To study the relative importance of these effects, cold flow investigations have been performed with a torch having a glass anode with the same geometric dimensions as a commercial plasma torch. The density differences between the arc and the cold gas were simulated by injecting heated helium from the tip of the cathode into the cold argon gas flow from the regular gas injector. Flow visualization was achieved by seeding the flow with micron-sized particles. A finite-element computational fluid dynamics code was used to simulate the cold flow structure. The results were compared with erosion patterns observed with an actual plasma torch. The results indicate that recirculation eddies inside the torch will force a preferred anode attachment, which is different for different gas injectors. The minimization of such recirculation regions by appropriate fluid dynamic design will result in more random attachment of the arc and prolonged anode life. The original version of this article was published as part of the ASM Proceedings, Thermal Spray 2003: Advancing the Science and Applying the Technology, International Thermal Spray Conference (Orlando, FL), May 5–8, 2003, Basil R. Marple and Christian Moreau, Ed., ASM International, 2003.     

Comparisons Between Two Different Three-Dimensional Arc Plasma Torch Simulations

Several numerical models have been developed to study the characteristics of an arc inside the nontransferred plasma torch. A few of them have considered complete geometry of cathode and anode nozzle (type I) whereas others have considered only anode nozzle with cathode tip (type II). In this work, a three-dimensional model is developed to simulate Ar-N₂ arc in type I and type II geometries. Various combinations of the arc length and arc core radius are predicted for the torch power that corresponds to given gas flow rate and current. Various combinations of the same and minimum entropy production for all cases could not be predicted in type II geometry. The difference between velocities predicted in both geometries is larger than that between temperatures. Three-dimensional effect in the plasma jet thermo-fluid fields demises along the axial direction. Torch efficiencies and arc voltages predicted in both geometries are comparable with measurements.     

工艺参数对等离子喷枪内电弧波动影响的三维数值模拟

基于局域热力学平衡假设,建立了三维非稳态等离子电弧的湍流模型,运用计算流体力学软件ANSYS CFX系统地模拟了电弧电流、氩气流量和氢气流量对氩/氢等离子喷枪内电弧波动的影响.结果表明,当电流小于600 A时,增大电流,电弧柱缩短,平均电弧电压和电压波动幅度减小,波动频率升高.当电流大于600 A时,增大电流对电弧波动基本没有影响.增加氩气流量或氢气流量均使得电弧柱增长,平均电弧电压和电压波动幅度增大,波动频率降低.三种工艺参数相比,氢气流量对电弧波动的影响最大,氩气流量次之,电弧电流影响最小.     

Characteristics of a Plasma Torch Designed for Very Low Pressure Plasma Spraying

Unlike atmosphere plasma spraying (APS), very low pressure plasma spraying (VLPPS) can only weakly heat the feed materials at the plasma-free region exit of the nozzle. Most current VLPPS methods have adopted a high power plasma gun, which operates at high arc currents up to 2500?A to remedy the lower heating ability, causing a series of problems for both the plasma torch and the associated facility. According to the Kundsen number and pressures distribution inside of the nozzle in a low-pressure environment, a plasma torch was designed with a separated anode and nozzle, and with the powder feed to the plasma jets inside the nozzle intake. In this study, the pressures in the plasma gas intake, in the nozzle intake and outside the plasma torch were measured using an enthalpy probe. For practice, SUS 316 stainless steel coatings were prepared at the plasma currents of 500-600?A, an arc voltage of 50?V and a chamber pressure of 1000?Pa; the results indicated that coatings with an equiaxed microstructure could be deposited?in proper conditions.     

Arc voltage fluctuations: Comparison between two plasma torch types

In plasma spray process, the arc root lifetime at the anode wall is limited and new arc roots are continuously created according to restrike, takeover or mixed modes. It results in voltage fluctuations at frequencies in the few thousands hertz range. Such phenomena play a key role in the spray process through the fluctuations of particle trajectories and correspondingly their velocity and temperature time-variations at impact. They have been intensively studied for Ar-H₂ plasmas produced by Sulzer-Metco PTF4 and Praxair plasma torch. However, the arc movement depends on several parameters such as the plasma spray parameters, the plasma gas mixture composition, the electrode geometry and the plasma forming gas injector design. In this paper, two commercial plasma torches, PTF4 and 3MB, running both with argon-hydrogen gas mixtures, have been studied. This research work shows the geometry effect and the cold boundary layer thickness on the arc voltage fluctuations, as well as the particle thermal treatment and the resulting coating properties.     

The role of torch instabilities in the suspension plasma spraying process

In spite of the fact that plasma spraying is a commonly used technique for coating elaboration, it remains important to follow in time the characteristics of the arc jet delivered by the plasma torch. Arc voltage and heat loss measurement could be used, together with the control parameters such as arc current and plasma gas flow rate, to investigate the global behavior of the torch in association with a simple analytical model. It is shown that the specific enthalpy and the isentropic coefficient of the plasma gas have a strong influence on the jet velocity, this latter being also significantly modified by the drift of the torch performance. This work is completed by the analysis of the plasma jet instabilities that are responsible for the discrepancy in particle thermal histories. The rear part of the torch is involved in self sustained oscillations, so that the torch shows the characteristics of a Helmholtz resonator, giving rise to periodic variations of the torch voltage, higher in amplitude than the commonly admitted restrike mode. It is also evoked, that the generated acoustic waves are interacting with the solvent vaporization.     

旋转电弧加热在环状工件内壁沉积金刚石涂层

为实现在大口径环状工件内壁沉积金刚石涂层,研制一种能够产生旋转电弧的分体式等离子炬。利用活动阳极形成的伞状电弧帽,改变平行于轴且向下吹的工作气体旋转电离的方向,使其垂直吹向环状工件内壁。测试不同阳极直径下电弧的工作参数,并用相机拍摄相应的电弧形貌。进行金刚石涂层沉积试验,在内径为180?mm的硬质合金拉拔模具和内径为100?mm的石墨内表面沉积出高质量的金刚石涂层。利用拉曼光谱仪和扫描电镜对涂层的成分、表面形貌等进行测试分析。已沉积金刚石涂层的硬质合金模具成功应用于超高压电缆铝护套的拉拔设备中。      

Effect of Helmholtz Oscillation on Auto-shroud for APS Tungsten Carbide Coating

The atmospheric-pressure plasma spray (APS) of tungsten coating was performed using tungsten carbide (WC) powder by means of DC plasma torch equipped with a stepped anode nozzle as a potential method of W coating on graphite plasma-facing component of fusion reactors. This nozzle configuration allows Helmholtz oscillation mode dominating in APS arc fluctuation, and the variation of auto-shroud effect with Helmholtz oscillation characteristics can be investigated. Tungsten coating made from WC powder has lower porosity and higher tungsten purity than that made from pure tungsten powder. The porosity and chemical composition of coatings were investigated by mercury intrusion porosimetry and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, respectively. The purity of tungsten coating layer is increased with the increasing frequency of Helmholtz oscillation and the increasing arc current. The modulation of Helmholtz oscillation frequency and magnitude may enhance the decarburization of WC to deposit tungsten coating without W-C and W-O bond from WC powder.     

Non-transferred Arc Torch Simulation by a Non-equilibrium Plasma Laminar-to-Turbulent Flow Model

Non-transferred arc torches are at the core of diverse industrial applications, particularly plasma spray. The flow in these torches transitions from laminar inside the torch to turbulent in the emerging jet. The interaction of the plasma with the processing gas leads to significant deviations from local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) far from the arc core. The flow from a non-transferred arc plasma spray torch is simulated using a non-LTE (NLTE) plasma flow model solved by variational multiscale (VMS) and nonlinear VMS (VMS_n) methods, which are suitable for unified laminar and turbulent flow simulations. Non-plasma turbulent jet simulations indicate that the VMS_n method produces results comparable to those by the dynamic Smagorinsky method, often considered the workhorse for turbulent incompressible flow simulations. VMS and VMS_n approaches are applied to the simulation of incompressible, compressible, and NLTE plasma flows in non-transferred arc torch operating at representative conditions found in plasma spray processes. The NLTE plasma flow simulations reproduce the dynamics of the arc inside the torch together with the evolution of turbulence in the produced plasma jet in a cohesive manner. However, the similarity of results by both methods indicates the need for numerical resolution significantly higher than what is commonly afforded in arc torch simulations.     

低功率等离子体炬生产钛合金粉末的理论与实验研究

探讨使用低功率等离子体炬生产钛合金金属粉末的可能性.设计一种氩气直流非转移电弧等离子体炬,并对其等离子体射流特性和导线温度进行数值分析.喷嘴附件内的最高射流速度为838～1178 m/s,不同气体流速下顶点处的射流速度为494～645 m/s.等离子体气体流速对有效等离子体射流长度无显著影响.利用等离子体射流的温度和速...     

切割用等离子弧的数值分析

以转移型直流电弧等离子体切割炬为研究对象,根据局部热力学平衡假设和磁流体动力学理论构建了电弧数学模型,采用数值模拟方法分析了等离子体炬内等离子体的传热和流动特性,阴极形状、锥角、内缩量和喷嘴形状对切割气流的速度和等离子温度分布的影响.并对五种常用形状阴极和两种不同内缩量的割炬内等离子流体速度场和温度场进行了比较.从数值分析的角度验证了阴极斑点较小的阴极能产生较大的焰流速度和热量,以及内缩量的增加对电弧的压缩具有显著作用.     

Design of a circular cascaded arc torch array for plasma spray

A new concept has been verified for a plasma spray electrode system that improves plasma plume uniformity over that of a single arc torch. A six-electrode, circular, arc-cascade discharge was formed by mounting seven tungsten-rod electrodes radially around a stream of argon gas. To maintain the plasma plume, the cascade-arc discharge was repetitively triggered using a cascaded high-voltage spark initiated by a secondary spark gap. The typical cascade arc voltage and current were 130 V and 20 A. Results show that the cascaded arc array system can create a ring-shaped plasma plume having near-uniform electrical energy in the circular direction. This feature suggests that the configuration may have future use in plasma torch systems requiring uniform circular symmetry. In such a system, spray particles can be injected into the center of the plasma ring. At the same time, such an arrangement also could provide a lower-cost alternative to systems that use multiple two-electrode plasma torches arranged in a circular configuration. In the latter system, each two-electrode plasma torch is fed by a separate power supply.     

Arc instabilities in a plasma spray torch

The control over coating quality in plasma spraying is partly dependent on the arc and jet instabilities of the plasma torch. Different forms of instabilities have been observed with different effects on the coating quality. We report on an investigation of these instabilities based on high-speed end-on observation of the arc. The framing rate of 40,500 frames per second has allowed the visualization of the anode attachment movement and the determination of the thickness of the cold-gas boundary layer surrounding the arc. The images have been synchronized with voltage traces. Data have been obtained for a range of arc currents, and mass flow rates for different gas injectors and for anodes displaying different amounts of wear. The analysis of the data has led to quantitative correlations between the cold-gas boundary layer thickness and the instability mode for the range of operating parameters. The arc instabilities can be seen to enhance the plasma jet instabilities and the cold-gas entrainment. These results are particularly useful for guiding plasma torch design and operation in minimizing the influence of plasma jet instabilities on coating properties.