Modelling of hydraulic deterioration of geotextile filter in tunnel drainage system

The discharge capacity of a tunnel drainage system generally decreases with time because of the hydraulic deterioration of the geotextile filter. Hydraulic deterioration restricts groundwater flow into a tunnel and increases water pressure resulting in detrimental effects on the tunnel lining. Hydraulic deterioration of tunnel drainage system is unique in terms of clogging materials, deterioration mechanism, and flow conditions. Current studies and models investigating the clogging mechanism and hydraulic deterioration are not directly applicable to the geotextile filter of the tunnel drainage system. In this study, a theoretical model of the hydraulic deterioration of tunnel geotextile filter has been proposed considering the mechanical and hydraulic behavior of blinding, clogging and squeezing. A parametric study was carried out to evaluate the performance of the model. An experimental study has been conducted to investigate the clogging behavior of the tunnel drainage system and validate the theoretical model. Several types of clogging materials were selected: cement-leaching calcium oxide, calcium carbonate, iron oxide, and bentonite. Agglutinated clogging was mainly observed during the short-term testing. The findings suggest that the in-plane permeability of the geotextile filter decreased by approximately 90%. The proposed model corroborated the experimental results.     

Comparison of the behaviour of various geotextiles used in the filtration of clayey sludge: An experimental study

This paper presents the results of an experimental study of various geotextiles used to filter clayey sludge. The use of geotextiles to filter clayey sludge or suspensions of fine particles in water is more complex than that for filtering suspensions of granular soils. In practice, such applications generally use flocculants to postpone the formation of a low-permeability filter cake. The objective of the present study, which does not use flocculants, is to determine how geotextile characteristics affect the capacity of the geotextile to filter clayey sludge. Three key questions are addressed: (1) What are the main differences between vertical and horizontal filtration? (2) How do geotextile characteristics (nature, opening size, permeability, etc.) affect its capacity to filter clayey sludge (3) How do clayey sludge characteristics (i.e., grain size distribution and concentration)? and the type of flow (i.e., constant head or constant flow) affect the filtering capacity of geotextiles? To evaluate the capacity of a geotextile to filter clayey sludge, we propose three relevant criteria and analyse two filtration phases induced by different cake-formation processes (controlled by the geotextile and controlled by the filter cake). To determine the main differences between vertical and horizontal filtration, the settling of fines in the testing device and its influence on the results are analysed and discussed. This study shows that, for the various clayey sludge tested, the geotextiles (needle-punched nonwoven and thermally bonded nonwoven) with the smallest opening sizes (O₉₀?≤?60?μm) give the most promising results for filtering fines without the use of flocculants. Of these geotextiles, the thermally bonded nonwoven structure seems to offer the best filtration performance for the largest range of fines concentration in the sludge.     

A comprehensive method for analyzing the effect of geotextile layers on embankment stability

Commercial software is used widely in slope stability analyses of reinforced embankments. Almost all of these programs consider the tensile strength of geotextiles and soil–geotextile interface friction. However, currently available commercial software generally does not consider the drainage function of nonwoven geotextile reinforcement. In this paper, a reinforced channel embankment reinforced by a nonwoven geotextile is analyzed using two methods. The first method only considers the tensile strength and soil–geotextile interface friction. The second method also considers the drainage function. In both cases, the reinforced embankment is modeled in rapid drawdown condition since this is one of the most important conditions with regard to stability of channel embankments. It is shown that for this type of application, modeling a nonwoven geotextile reinforced embankment using commercial software which neglects the drainage function of the geotextile may be unrealistic.     

无机轻集料保温砂浆材料组成对性能影响的研究

以玻化微珠或闭孔珍珠岩为保温骨料的无机轻集料保温砂浆是一种新型建筑干粉砂浆,具有保温隔热及耐火、耐老化性能较好的特点。本文研究了水泥、改性剂、可再分散乳胶粉及不同的胶结料与保温骨料之比对保温砂浆性能的影响情况。结果表明,增加水泥用量,保温砂浆强度、导热系数提高,旖工性能变差：在保持导热系数相同的条件下,改性剂能明显提高砂浆的抗压强度;砂浆中保温骨料含量增大,导热系数降低,但会对强度产生不利影响;可再分散乳胶粉掺量增大,砂浆拉伸粘结强度提高。当掺量为4％时,通过扫描电镜能明显观察到浆体中膜的形貌。     

Evaluation of moisture reduction in aggregate base by wicking geotextile using soil column tests

This study investigated the distance effect on water reduction by the wicking geotextile in a base course experimentally using three sets of soil column tests. In each set of tests, two soil columns were constructed by compacting well-graded aggregate over a non-wicking woven geotextile and a wicking geotextile. A portion of the geotextile specimen was extended outside of the soil column for evaporation. The changes of the water contents in the soil column were monitored by volumetric water content sensors installed at various depths. The experimental results indicate the capillary drainage by the wicking geotextile effectively reduced water content within the soil column up to a distance from the wicking geotextile (i.e., approximately 200 mm for this specific aggregate with 10% fines). The test results also show that the wicking geotextile could reduce more water content of the aggregate below its optimum water content at a faster rate than the non-wicking geotextile.     

Centrifuge model tests on the use of geosynthetic layer as an internal drain in levees

The objective of the paper is to examine the use of a geosynthetic layer as an internal drain in a levee subjected to flooding through centrifuge model tests. Three levee sections, having an upstream slope of 1V:1H and downstream slope of 1.5V:1H, were modelled at 30 gravities in a 4.5?m radius large beam centrifuge available at IIT Bombay. Out of the three levee sections modelled, one levee section was without any drainage layer (or clogged drain), while the other two had different types of horizontal drainage layers, namely, sand and nonwoven geotextile layer. The flood was induced with the help of a custom developed and calibrated in-flight flood simulator. At the onset of flood and subsequent seepage, pore water pressures within levee section, and surface settlements were measured using pore water transducers (PPTs) and linear variable differential transformer (LVDTs) respectively. Digital image analysis was employed to trace surface settlements, and downstream slope face movements at the onset of flooding during centrifuge tests. Levee section without any horizontal drain or clogged drain experienced a catastrophic failure. In comparison, the levee sections with an internal drain (sand/geotextile) remained stable at the onset of flooding. In the case of a levee with a sand drainage layer, the phreatic surface was observed to confine within the levee section itself, whereas it was found to migrate towards toe gradually in the levee section with a nonwoven geotextile layer. It is attributed to either due to suppression of drainage capacity of nonwoven geotextile layer or due to washing of fine particles into pores of nonwoven geotextile layer. Further, seepage and stability analyses were carried out numerically and compared with centrifuge test results. In order to address blocking of pores of nonwoven geotextile layer, a concept of sandwiching nonwoven geotextile layer with sand was explored. By sandwiching nonwoven geotextile layer with sand on either side, the thickness of drainage layer can be of the order of 0.05H.     

泡沫轻质土在高速公路路基高填方的应用

介绍了泡沫轻质土的特点及施工工艺,指出了高速公路高填方路基使用泡沫轻质土填筑的优势,设计了用于路基高填方的配合比。分析认为该材料能够解决高速公路高填方改扩建征地难,成本高,地基沉降等问题,具有广阔的应用前景。     

Reduction of subgrade fines migration into subbase of flexible pavement using geotextile

Pumping in pavement is defined as traffic-induced migration of saturated subgrade fines into overlying granular layers or onto the surface of the pavement, negatively impacting the performance and service life of the pavement. The objective of this study was to assess the capability of geotextile as a separation and filtration layer in reducing subgrade fines migration. A one-third scale Model Mobile Load Simulator, an accelerated pavement testing device, was used to simulate the cyclic traffic loading on a scaled model of a flexible pavement. The results from three scaled pavement tests were compared to evaluate the effectiveness of geotextile separation and filtration in reducing subgrade fines migration. The three tests had identical configurations, except that a geotextile layer was placed at the interface of subgrade and subbase in one of the tests. The lab testing revealed that, under cyclic traffic conditions, the migration of subgrade fines into subbase was significant. However, using a geotextile at the subgrade-subbase interface significantly reduced the subgrade pumping. At the end of the test, the fines that migrated to the subbase, based on % mass of subbase, were 6.39% in the tests without geotextile and 1.81% in the test with geotextile. An approximately 30% reduction was observed in the amount of pavement rutting when using geotextile at the top of the subgrade. The subgrade soil migration in mass percentage increased with the traffic loading cycles, and more migration occurred in the bottom half than in the top half of the subbase. The study concludes that geotextile can be used as an effective means to reduce pumping of subgrade fines in pavement by providing both separation and filtration.     

Application of jute geotextiles as facilitator in drainage

For constructions on extremely soft foundation medium, the most common practice is to allow the soft soil to consolidate under the application of surcharge which generally consists of applying the necessary superimposed preload. However, because of low permeability of the in-situ soil, this often becomes a time consuming affair and also large quantities of material may have to be applied in the form of overburden. In some of the very fine grained soils encountered in practice, it may not be feasible to apply the surcharge without the danger of exceeding the bearing capacity of the existing formation soil. In such cases jute geotextiles may actually permit the construction to be carried out successfully and in a cost effective manner. A quantitative study on the efficacy of jute geotextile for consolidation purposes has been made and the outcome seems interesting. A design methodology involving selection and application of jute geotextile drains in weak foundation soil is suggested. Further, comparison of published standards with available properties of jute geotextile reveals that the fabric meets the criterion required for such purposes. Hence it may be judicious to explore the technically feasible, environmentally compatible and economically viable use of jute geotextile, as a suitable drainage medium for dealing with drainage problems encountered in the field.     

宽级配砾质土防渗性能研究

宽级配砾质土是一种性能良好的防渗料,然而土体的细粒含量、细粒物理特性、击实功以及颗粒级配等多种因素均对其渗透系数有很大的影响。针对以上因素对宽级配土的渗透系数影响因素展开试验研究。采用不同细粒含量、不同种类细粒部分以及不同级配的宽级配砾质土进行室内变水头渗透试验,探究这些因素对渗透系数的影响规律。试验结果表明:宽级配砾质土的渗透系数随着细粒含量的升高先迅速降低后趋于平稳;随着细粒料液限和塑性指数的增加,宽级配砾质土的渗透系数逐渐降低;以粉质黏土和黏土为细粒料的宽级配砾质土的渗透系数均随击实功的增加呈指数函数形式下降;粗粒料级配连续性越好,宽级配砾质土渗透系数越低。根据大坝心墙渗透系数小于1×10~(-5) cm/s的防渗要求,提出了以界限含水率和细粒料百分比为控制指标的宽级配土防渗料的控制标准。     

Numerical parametric investigation of infiltration in one-dimensional sand–geotextile columns

Geotextiles are routinely used in separation and filtration applications. Design of these systems is currently based on saturated properties of the geotextiles and the surrounding soils. However, in the field, soil and geotextile can be in an unsaturated state for much of their design life during which they are essentially hydraulically non-conductive. Periodic wetting and drying cycles can result in rapid and large changes in hydraulic performance of soil–geotextile systems. The writers have reported the results from physical water infiltration tests on sand columns with and without a geotextile inclusion. The geotextile inclusions were installed in new and modified states to simulate the influence of clogging due to fines and to broaden the range of hydraulic properties of the geotextiles in the physical tests. This paper reports the results of numerical simulations that were undertaken to reproduce the physical tests and strategies adopted to adjust soil and geotextile properties from independent laboratory tests to improve the agreement between numerical and physical test results. For example the paper shows that the hydraulic conductivity function of the geotextile must be reduced by up to two orders of magnitude to give acceptable agreement. The lower hydraulic conductivity is believed to be due to soil intrusion that is not captured in conventional laboratory permeability tests. The calibrated numerical model is used to investigate the influence of geotextile and soil hydraulic conductivity and thickness as well as height of ponded water at the surface on wetting front advance below the geotextile and potential ponding of water above the geotextile due to a capillary break mechanism. A simple analytical model is also developed that predicts the maximum ponding height of water above the geotextile based on two-layer saturated media and 1-D steady state flow assumptions. The analytical model is used to generate a design chart to select geotextiles to minimize potential ponding of water above the geotextile. Ponding can lead to lateral flow of water along the geotextile in reinforced wall, slope, embankment and road base applications.     

Drainage performance of geotextiles

It should be noted that the drainage conditions and mechanisms are somewhat different when geotextiles are used as back fill material behind retaining walls. One of the major differences is that the soil installed by the geotextile may not necessaroly be saturated. Generally, the drainage performance of geotextiles can be evaluated by examining combined behavior of geotextiles, soil particles and water. However, in addition to the above materials, in investigating the drainage performance of geotextiles as back fill material behind retaining walls, the effect of air should be taken into account. Therefore, this study has concentrated on investigating the effect of drainage performance of an initially dry geotextile. A further long-term test was carried out primarily to examine the mechanism and development of self-induced filters, which is believed to determine the drainage performance of the geotextile.     

隧道水泥处置碎石排水基层配合比设计及应用

结合某高速公路隧道工程实例,介绍水泥处置碎石排水基层的透水性能、配合比设计与选择及施工技术与质量措施,通过现场试验检测证明,水泥处置碎石排水基层满足设计技术要求,符合质量验收标准。     

Filtration behaviour of soil-nonwoven geotextile combinations subjected to various loads

Geotextiles are often subject to different load types in their filtration applications. The load action can cause changes in soil density, geotextile stretching and flow interaction at the soil-geotextile interface. All of these load-induced changes to a geotextile may affect the filtration behaviour of the soil-geotextile system. The impact of load type on the filtration behaviour of soil-nonwoven geotextile combinations has been studied through a series of tests using an experimental apparatus designed specially for the laboratory tests. In these tests, the soil-geotextile combination was fabricated by inserting a piece of nonwoven geotextile between a 50 mm thick soil layer and a layer of steel beads. Two chemical-bonded nonwoven geotextiles were employed in this study. One of the three load types, namely sustained, pulsatory and a combination of both was applied to the combination prior to each filtration test. The frequency of the pulsatory load was 0.1 Hz and a total of 5000 cycles of repeated load applied to the combination for each load type test. After applying this specific type of load on a soil-geotextile combination, water was allowed to flow down through the combination from the soil into a drainage layer set at various hydraulic gradients. The flow rates corresponding to elapsed times were measured and the average hydraulic conductivity value was extracted by using Darcy’s law to characterize the filtration performance of the entire soil-geotextile combination. Variations in the average hydraulic conductivity value with respect to the soil void ratio, magnitude and type of normal load were examined.The experimental results revealed that the void ratio of soil decreased with the increase of total load. Although two parent geotextiles under study, namely GT1 and GT2, have similar filtration characteristics, soil-geotextile combinations composed of these two geotextiles exhibited different filtration responses to the normal load. Soil-GT1 combinations exhibited a normal relationship between the average hydraulic conductivity and the normal load applied; the average hydraulic conductivity increased with an increase in the total load. Soil-GT2 combinations exhibited different load-dependent responses to a normal load with the average hydraulic conductivity depending on the magnitude and type of load. Such load-dependent hydraulic conductivity changes are attributed mainly to the geotextile in-plane strain and the pumping action in the combination.     

CFD-DEM modeling of geotextile clogging in tunnel drainage systems

In this study, a coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics-Discrete Element Method (CFD-DEM) method we used to investigate the hydraulic deterioration of a geotextile due to clogging in tunnel drainage systems. Initially, a framework was developed to generate and test a numerical representation of a typical non-woven geotextile. Following model validation, we carried out parametric analysis to examine the effect of fine content, crack angle, and groundwater inflow. The results showed a general trend of pressure increase associated with increasing both the crack angle and fine content. This increase was found to decay at larger crack angles and high content of fines. Interestingly, increasing groundwater inflow was found to had minimal effect on the final deposition of the clogging particles. Finally, an approximate semi-analytical model was developed to describe the pressure increase due to clogging. The model was able to provide a good match with the data obtained from the numerical analysis.     

聚丙烯纤维气泡混合轻质土抗压力学性能研究

通过聚丙烯纤维气泡混合轻质土标准试件无侧限抗压试验来探究聚丙烯纤维含量及纤维长度对气泡混合轻质土抗压强度的影响。试验结果表明:气泡混合轻质土的抗压强度随着聚丙烯纤维含量的增加而提高,且龄期越长,其强度增长效果越显著;当抗压强度达到峰值后,随着聚丙烯纤维长度的增加,气泡混合轻质土的抗压强度曲线呈降低趋势,且存在纤维长度最优值。结合材料应力-应变曲线,采用坐标无量纲化处理及分段式受压曲线方程理论,初步建立了聚丙烯纤维气泡混合轻质土单轴受压全曲线函数方程,并采用离散数据数值分析方法对应力-应变曲线下降段的理论函数方程进行修正,给出了具有明确物理意义的聚丙烯纤维气泡混合轻质土单轴受压全曲线分段函数方程。     

Field monitoring of wicking geotextile to reduce soil moisture under a concrete pavement subjected to precipitations and temperature variations

Wicking geotextile can reduce water contents in pavement layers under unsaturated conditions due to capillary action through grooves of wicking fibers. Reduction of soil water content under the pavement can minimize pavement distresses. So far, there have been limited use and verification of the wicking geotextile in reducing water content of soil under concrete pavements in the field. In this field study, moisture sensors were installed in three test sections under a newly-built concrete pavement during its re-construction. The base course in one test section had a higher percentage of small particles than those in other two sections. The wicking geotextile was used between the base course and the subgrade in two test sections while a nonwoven geotextile was used in one test section. All test sections were subjected to precipitations and temperature variations. Field monitoring data showed that the wicking geotextile reduced the volumetric water content (VWC) of an aggregate base more than the nonwoven geotextile and its wicking ability decreased as the content of small particles increased. In addition, the wicking ability of the wicking geotextile decreased as the temperature decreased due to the reduction in the evaporation rate and the increase in the water retention capacity of the soil at low temperatures.     

Analysis of geotextile filter behaviour after 21 years in Valcros dam

In 1970, nonwoven geotextiles were used for the first time in an earth dam. The geotextile acted as a filter for the toe drain and on the upstream slope below the rip-rap. In 1992, samples were taken from both locations and performance tests were conducted in the laboratory. This paper presents the main results of the hydraulic behaviour of the geotextile filter in association with the soil of the dam. Also microscopic analyses are presented and, as the filter is considered to be performing well, selected filter criteria are checked.     

Reexamination of traditional testing techniques for determining WRCs of woven geotextiles in full suction range

Woven geotextiles have been widely used in soil infrastructures for the reinforcement purpose. The hydraulic properties of a woven geotextile are not major reinforcement design parameters and the water retention capability of a woven geotextile is often ignored. The traditional testing techniques were designed for soils or nonwoven geotextiles, but not for woven geotextiles. Nowadays, a new type of woven geotextile with wicking fibers was developed which could be used for both drainage and reinforcement purposes. However, there are no proper testing techniques to determine the full-range water retention curve (WRC) for a woven geotextile, let alone for the wicking geotextile.This paper aimed at proposing a proper testing technique to determining the full-range WRC for the wicking geotextile and to compare the water retention capability of wicking and non-wicking geotextiles. Firstly, the traditional testing techniques were re-examined to check the suitability for characterizing the WRCs of woven geotextiles whose pore size distributions were anisotropic. Secondly, a proper testing technique was proposed and the WRCs of different types of woven geotextiles were determined. Thirdly, the WRCs of wicking and non-wicking geotextiles were compared to demonstrate the advantages of the wicking geotextile to hold and transport water under unsaturated conditions. Finally, the effect of wicking fiber on the water retention capability of the wicking geotextile was quantified.     

Improved design criteria for nonwoven geotextile filters with internally stable and unstable soils

In geotextile filtration, the soil fines are either accumulated near the interface, clogged, or washed out, which primarily depends on the grain size distribution (GSD) of soil and the constriction size distribution (CSD) of geotextile. Also, the movement of fines significantly affects the flow capacity of geotextile. Currently, the retention requirement is satisfied based on representative grain and opening sizes, whereas the hydraulic conductivity and clogging requirements are satisfied considering the properties of virgin geotextile. This paper presents a probabilistic retention criterion considering the grain and constriction sizes as random variables. The influence of geotextile thickness is incorporated into the criterion by considering the number of geotextile constrictions in a filtration path. A theoretical approach to predict CSD is presented if the measured data is unavailable. For hydraulic conductivity and clogging requirements, a criterion is presented considering the expected partial clogging of geotextile, which is predicted based on the semi-analytical approach. The limit states for the developed criteria are evaluated based on the wide range of experimental data from the current study and published literature. The developed design criteria are applicable to internally stable and unstable soils, which offers an improvement in design compared to the existing criteria in practice.