A case study on rock damage prediction and control method for underground tunnels subjected to adjacent excavation blasting

The effects of tunnel blast excavation on the surrounding rock mass and the lining systems of adjacent existing tunnels are comprehensively studied for the Damaoshan highway tunnel project as a case study. The damage of the surrounding rock and the lining system under different blast loads are analyzed by field tests and numerical simulations. It is observed that the rock damage extent around the tunnels linearly increases with the peak particle velocity (PPV) of the existing tunnel. A feasible PPV-based damage control method is then proposed for different portions of the tunnels. For the Damaoshan tunnel project, a PPV threshold of 0.22 m/s in the adjacent existing tunnel is prescribed to limit the damage extent to approximately 1.6 m at the tunnel exit and entrance portions. Furthermore, the PPV criteria for the other portions are also determined accordingly. It is also shown that no failure occurs in the linings or at the rock–lining interfaces if the PPV is less than 0.30 m/s. The control method and the threshold PPV proposed in this study have been successfully applied to restrict blast-induced damage during the new tunnel excavation of the Damaoshan tunnel project.     

Dynamic centrifuge tests on isolation mechanism of tunnels subjected to seismic shaking

Isolation layer is one of the countermeasures to enhance seismic safety of tunnels. Its behavior under earthquake is affected by many factors such as shape of the tunnel, stiffness of the isolation layer and the characteristics of the input motion. However, current knowledge on the effects of these parameters on the seismic behavior of isolation layer is limited to lack of experimental data. This paper focuses on the mechanism of isolation layer, especially the efficacy of input motion frequencies on the seismic behavior of a square tunnel with isolation layer around its outer surface. Dynamic centrifuge tests were carried out on model tunnels which took isolation layer as seismic countermeasure using input motion of sinusoidal waves of different frequencies. Actual records of ground motions, magnified to approximate 15 g peak acceleration, formed the basis of the excitations to verify the actual efficacy. Due to the difference between model material (aluminum alloy) and prototype material (concrete), the similar flexural deformation law and the similar axial deformation law could not be satisfied simultaneously. Given the fact that cross-sectional moments were one of the main factors that influenced the safety of tunnels under dynamic loadings, the similar flexural deformation law was accepted in model preparation. The results show that the bending strains of tunnel with isolation layer around its outer surface are lower than those of tunnel without isolation layer, which indicates that isolation layer has positive effect on moment reduction, especially at corners. Increasing of the input motion frequency decreases the dynamic cross-sectional bending moments. In addition, isolation layer has little influence on frequency contents of acceleration response of tunnel. This study has clarified the mechanism of isolation layer on shock absorption, which is proved to be an effective method to improve the safety of tunnel against earthquake.     

Shaking table tests on seismic measures of a model mountain tunnel

A series of three dimensional (3D) shaking table tests were carried out to investigate the mechanism and effect of seismic measures of mountain tunnel using a scaled model based on a real tunnel. Key technical details of the experiment, including similarity relations, seismic measures simulation, boundary conditions, sensor layout, modeling methods, and ground motion input were presented. Main seismic measures, including reinforcing surrounding rock with anchors, increasing lining flexibility with steel wire mesh, and installing seismic isolation layer between reinforced surrounding rock and tunnel lining, were investigated in this study. Experiment results show that: (1) adding a layer of steel wire mesh in the tunnel lining can improve the flexibility and seismic performance and also may effectively prevent radial cracks from crossing the lining; (2) installing a geofoam isolation layer between the reinforced surrounding rock and the tunnel lining reduces dynamic earth pressure by 70–90% for the lining without a seismic isolation layer; (3) the flexible joints can effectively avoid global failures of tunnel lining for they reduce dynamic strain and bending force in the tunnel lining and decrease the seismic energy transmission along the lining in axial direction; (4) reinforcing surrounding rock with anchors significantly reduces dynamic earth pressure and strain of the lining by about 50%. In addition, the length of seismic reinforcement for general mountain tunnel portal is recommended to be 50 m from the tunnel portal along the axial direction.     

The effect of principal stress orientation on tunnel stability

In order to investigate the effect of principal stress orientation on the stability of regular tunnels and cracked tunnels, experiments by using square specimens with a centralized small tunnel were conducted, and the corresponding numerical study as well as photoelastic study were implemented. Two kinds of materials, cement mortar and sandstone, were used to make tunnel models, and three types of tunnel models were studied, i.e. (1) regular tunnel models loaded by different orientation’s principal stresses, (2) tunnel models with various orientation’s radial cracks in the spandrel under compression, and (3) tunnel models with a fixed radial crack loaded by various orientation’s principal stresses. In the numerical study, the stress intensity factors of the radial cracks were calculated, and the results agree well with the test results. For regular tunnels, when the angle θ between the major principal stress and the tunnel symmetrical axis is 45°, the corresponding tunnel is the most unfavorable; for tunnels with a radial crack in the spandrel, when the angle β between the crack and the tunnel wall is 135°, the corresponding tunnel is the most unfavorable; for tunnels with a β = 130° radial crack, when θ = 0° or θ = 70°, the compressive strengths of the tunnel models are comparatively low, whereas when θ = 90°, it is the highest.     

Application and validation of simple image-mosaic technology for interpreting cracks on tunnel lining

As a simple, portable method that uses inexpensive tools for structural safety inspections of tunnels, this study presents a novel image-mosaic technology that generates layouts of tunnel wall surfaces. Geometric distortion in camera images of 3D tunnel surfaces is rectified through equations related to projection characteristics and the bilinear interpolation method. Successive taken images with at least four reference points in each one are then resampled to a 2D coordinate for the layout of tunnel surfaces. Test results for a laboratory-scale tunnel demonstrate that the spatial accuracy of the proposed image-mosaic technology for a mosaicked layout from vertical images is approximately 1.6° with sufficient image resolution for detecting lining cracks with widths exceeding 0.45 mm. Field application to a full-size, operational tunnel indicates that the layout of tunnel wall surfaces by the proposed technology is sufficient for identifying lining crack distributions and detecting temporal variations in cracks.     

Geotechnical risk management approach for TBM tunnelling in squeezing ground conditions

Historically, attempts to use tunnel boring machines (TBMs) in Himalayan geology have been unsuccessful, particularly where weak rocks exist at the significant depths often required for hydroelectric hydraulic tunnels resulting in squeezing ground conditions. The use of segmental tunnel linings erected by shielded TBMs presents additional risk, such that the advantages of potentially high rates of advance using this form of construction have not previously been realised. Programme demands for the 330 MW Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project in India required that 15 km of the 23 km headrace tunnel be constructed using a double-shield TBM erecting a segmental lining. Preliminary studies suggested difficult ground due to squeezing conditions along the 1400 m deep tunnel through weak meta-sedimentary rocks. To allow planning and construction to commence, a risk management approach to design and construction was formulated with contingency procedures and criteria developed to allow the risks to the TBM and the lining to be managed effectively. Advanced numerical modelling included analysis of the tunnel with the ground represented by a Stress Hardening Elastic Viscous Plastic (SHELVIP) model to take account of time dependent loading. The Kishanganga tunnel represents the first segmentally lined TBM tunnel to be successfully constructed in the Himalaya. This paper describes the risk-mitigation approach, the special measures developed to address the risks, the numerical modelling and laboratory testing undertaken, and includes results from the segmental lining monitoring. Recognition of the risks, the development of an innovative methodology and the provision of the means by which geotechnical risk could be managed effectively during construction, gave confidence to all stakeholders to proceed with a method of construction that had not previously been implemented successfully in the Himalaya.     

Ground response of closely spaced twin tunnels constructed in heavily overconsolidated soils

As part of the City of Edmonton’s light rail transit expansion, twin 6.5 m diameter oval shaped tunnels were constructed using conventional tunnelling methods. The geology of the site consists predominately of a hard, fissured cohesive till unit. The tunnel face construction was sequenced as top header, bench and invert excavations. At its narrowest, the pillar separating the twin tunnels was less than 1.5 m across or 0.23 tunnel diameters. Typically, the minimum pillar spacing required to reduce the interaction between twin, side by side tunnels is one tunnel diameter. Because the tunnel construction was within an urban environment, there was considerable concern with ground loss and excessive surface settlements. This study demonstrates that within similar materials, a pillar width of 0.5 tunnel diameters sufficiently reduces the tunnel interactions and minimize the risk of damage to nearby structures.     

Application of ground penetrating radar in grouting evaluation for shield tunnel construction

Uniformity and quality of the grout behind the lining segments have a great influence on the long-term settlement in shield tunnel construction in soft soil areas. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the grouting treatment before the tunnel operation, a nondestructive testing method using ground penetrating radar (GPR) was proposed to detect the grout thickness behind the lining segments of metro lines in Shanghai, China. GPR has shown to be a viable approach due to the facts that: (1) the detecting objects (concrete segments, grout and soil) were in the depth of one meter or less; (2) dielectric parameters of all the materials can be obtained from the laboratory; (3) the contrasts in the dielectric properties among these three materials were large enough; (4) only the boundary between the grout and the soil needed to be found since the concrete segments had a known even thickness of 0.35 m. Three GPR frequencies 250 MHz, 500 MHz and 1 GHz were used in the field tests in Shanghai Metro line 9. The results showed that the 250 MHz GPR had a low resolution while the 1 GHz GPR had a shallow detecting depth. Frequency at 500 MHz showed the most promising results. These tests results demonstrated that nondestructive geophysics techniques such as GPR detection can be used to mitigate the risks of long-term ground settlement, a critical issue of shield tunnel construction in soft soil areas such as Shanghai.     

纤维混凝土隧道衬砌地震动力响应特性的振动台试验研究

 为研究纤维混凝土隧道衬砌在地震动力作用下的动响应特性,对普通混凝土隧道衬砌与纤维混凝土隧道衬砌开展大型振动台模型试验,分析隧道衬砌的震害特征、地震动应变、结构内力和应变基线响应规律。试验结果表明：水平地震荷载及地层压力共同作用下,2种隧道衬砌均为仰拱最先开裂,其次为拱腰开裂,衬砌结构破坏模式主要为开裂、掉块和裂缝两侧挤压破坏;素混凝土隧道衬砌出现开裂破坏早,裂缝易贯通,裂缝两侧混凝土基体在振动过程中相对位移大;纤维混凝土隧道衬砌出现开裂破坏晚,裂缝两侧混凝土基体在振动过程中相对位移小,裂缝呈挤压破坏状;纤维延缓衬砌结构裂缝的产生和阻碍裂缝的扩展;地震波加速度峰值从0.1 g增大到1.0 g时,素混凝土隧道衬砌动应变极值和裂缝宽度显著增大,而纤维混凝土隧道衬砌动应变极值和裂缝宽度先在一定范围内缓慢增长然后迅速增大,但最终2种衬砌动应变极值和裂缝宽度大致相等,说明纤维混凝土隧道衬砌在一定地震荷载范围内可以有效避免开裂和减小裂缝宽度;纤维混凝土隧道衬砌压缩变形率较小,当输入地震波加速度峰值为0.1 g和0.4 g时,纤维混凝土隧道衬砌结构动弯矩极值较低,受力更均衡,能有效地抵御地震荷载。     

Mechanical behaviour of scaled-down unsupported tunnel walls in hard rock under high stress

A large number of scaled-down tunnel experiments were undertaken to investigate the response of unsupported walls to an increased stress field. The experiments were undertaken in 200 mm diameter tunnels that were drilled into intact rock blocks of sandstone and granite ranging in strength from moderately strong to very strong. The tunnels were loaded by a servo-controlled, 450 tonne capacity INSTRON compression testing machine. As the ratio of intact rock strength to induced stress decreased, the unsupported tunnel walls became increasingly unstable. Critical ratios of compressive strength to induced stress were determined for critical instability stages such as tunnel spalling and also pillar crushing adjacent to the tunnels. The physical models have been simulated using three-dimensional finite element modelling. The values of the critical ratios correlate well with underground observations of full scale tunnels with similar Uniaxial Compressive Strength materials. Dynamic ejection velocities similar to those calculated from back analysis of actual failures have been determined. In addition, the seismic responses prior and during key failure stages have been established as a function of the increased loadings.     

Assessment of damage in mountain tunnels due to the Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake

Tunnels, being underground structures, have long been assumed to have the ability to sustain earthquakes with little damage. However, investigations of mountain tunnels after the Chi-Chi Earthquake in central Taiwan revealed that many tunnels suffered significant damage to various extents. This work describes the findings of a systematic assessment of damage in the mountain tunnels in Taiwan after the earthquake. It was found that among the 57 tunnels investigated 49 of them were damaged. The damage patterns are summarized based on the characteristics and the distribution of the lining cracks. This systematic investigation, involving geological conditions, design documents, construction and maintenance records of these tunnels, has been conducted to assess the potential factors that may have influence on the various damage patterns and the earthquake loading for tunnels. The results show that the degree of damage is associated with the geological condition and structural arrangement of the tunnel. A tunnel passing through a displaced fault zone will definitely suffer damage. The extent of geological weak zones, distance from the epicenter, and the existence of a slope face are also significant influencing factors. The seismic capacity of the tunnel is influenced by its structural arrangement, type of lining, invert setup, lining reinforcement, and other parameters.     

Design and optimisation of laser scanning for tunnels geometry inspection

The use of terrestrial laser scanning technology in engineering surveys is gaining an increasing interest due to the very high spatial density of the acquired data. Recent improvements regarding the speed, accuracy, software algorithms and the fall in price have introduced a high potential for large scale applications of this technology in highly demanding engineering environments such as tunnels. Railway tunnels, in particular those of a long length, create challenges for surveyors due to their elongation to obtain satisfactory geometry of the scanned data. The purpose of this paper is to give an optimal solution for surveying tunnel geometry using laser scanning technology to reliably inspect railway tunnels and create “as-built” documentation.The proposed methodology provides optimisation of scanning parameters, scans registration, the georeferencing approach and the survey control network design. The maximal size of the scanner shifting along the tunnel alignment is primarily conditioned by factors including the incidence angle of the laser beam and the point density distribution. The authors introduce the so-called arbitrary georeferencing approach in long tunnel scanning that controls the point cloud geometric distortions to the required limits and contributes to time and material resources savings. Optimal design of the survey control network ensures the required positional accuracy and the reliability of the measurements, together with a cost effective approach to tunnels surveying.The proposed methodology is followed by the empirical results of the modelling and profiling of 12 tunnels in a single track railway. The lengths of these tunnels are from 60 m to 1260 m, with a total length of 3.5 km. Due to the specific geometry of the case study tunnels, the maximal favourable laser incidence angle is 78° with a distance of 13 m and consequently the optimal size of the scanner shifting along the tunnel alignment is 26 m. The survey control network is designed with the condition that the optimal reliability factors are within the required limits for engineering networks. A priori estimation of the control network positional uncertainty and a posteriori adjustment results shows that the achieved positional accuracy of the control points is approximately five times better than the requested absolute accuracy of the tunnel model: σ_m = 2 cm. On the largest tunnel example it is shown that the arbitrary georeferencing approach assures that the optimal registration error size is within the requested limits.     

盾构隧道在可液化场地中的地震响应分析

盾构隧道的装配式管片是其显著的结构特点,目前的抗震研究主要采用简化方法,少有能有效反映管片和接头细部特征的动力反应分析方法,对其在可液化场地中的地震响应规律也需要进一步研究。本文建立了一种精细化装配式管片结构计算模型,并基于砂土液化大变形统一本构模型,采用弹塑性有限元动力时程分析,分析了盾构隧道在可液化场地中的地震响应特征及规律。结果表明接头处响应是盾构隧道抗震的重要考虑因素。装配式管片结构相比于整体式结构柔度更大,受力较小,变形较大。在可液化场地中盾构隧道由于水平向作用力显著增加,在水平向被挤压,受力分布和抗震不利位置相比非液化场地有明显区别。     

Effect of Depth on the Seismic Response of Square Tunnels

Response of tunnels to earthquake induced loads is a complex dynamic soil-structure interaction problem. While there seems to be a general consensus that tunnels in rock perform adequately during earthquake events, the seismic performance of shallow tunnels in soils is less certain. More experimental and field data is needed to better understand the dynamic tunnel-soil interaction. In this paper, the behaviour of relatively shallow tunnels of square cross-section located in a sand deposit is investigated using dynamic centrifuge modelling and complimentary Finite Element analysis. Emphasis is given on the effect of tunnel axis depth on the seismic response of square tunnels. Dynamic centrifuge tests were carried out on model tunnels at different depths of embedment. Accelerations around the tunnel and earth pressures on the linings were measured. Tunnel deformations were also recorded using a fast digital camera. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) analyses were conducted to measure soil and lining deformations. Results show that for the cases investigated, the depth of the tunnel does not effect the deformation pattern of the tunnel significantly during an earthquake event; however it affects the amount of amplification of accelerations through the tunnel, the magnitude of dynamic earth pressures and the magnitude of the lining forces.     

Time-dependent behavior of tunnel lining in weak rock mass based on displacement back analysis method

Weak rock mass behavior is an important and challenging consideration during construction and utilization of a tunnel. Tunnel surrounding ground deformation in weak rocks causes to gradual development of loading on the support system and threats the opening stability. In this research, time-dependent behavior of Shibli twin tunnels was investigated using laboratory testing, monitoring data, and finite difference numerical simulation approaches. The host rock of Shibli tunnels are mainly composed of gray to black Shale, Marl and calcareous Shale. Geological maps and reports demonstrate a heavily jointed condition in the host rock through two orogenic phases. The experiment was organized in following order to understand the behavior of the rock mass around the tunnels. At first, triaxial creep test were conducted on intact rock specimens. Then, the time-dependent behavior of the tunnel host rock was numerically simulated considering Burger-creep visco-plastic model (CVISC). Finally, displacement based direct back analysis using univariate optimization algorithm was applied. Also, the properties of the CVISC model and initial stress ratio were estimated. Numerical modeling was verified by its comparison with tunnel displacement monitoring results. The creep behavior of the rock mass was predicted during tunnel service life based on back analysis results. Results show that thrust force, bending moment, and the resulting axial stresses will gradually increase at the spring line of the final lining. After 55 years of tunnel utilization the compressive strengths of lining concrete will not be stable against the induced-stresses by thrust force and bending moment, thus the tunnel inspection and rehabilitation are recommended.     

衬砌背后空洞影响下隧道结构裂损规律试验研究

衬砌背后空洞的存在严重影响了围岩与衬砌之间的相互作用,极易引起衬砌结构破损并直接影响到运营安全。通过模型试验,系统研究了拱顶与拱肩背后存在双空洞条件下隧道结构裂损演化过程及衬砌结构轴力和弯矩的变化规律。模型试验结果表明:(1)衬砌背后双空洞的存在,严重影响隧道结构的受力状态,易导致衬砌结构承载力不足;(2)拱顶与右拱肩背后存在双空洞条件下衬砌裂缝出现的顺序为:仰拱内表面裂缝→空洞间衬砌内表面裂缝→拱肩空洞右侧衬砌外表面裂缝→拱顶空洞左侧衬砌内表面裂缝→左拱脚衬砌外表面裂缝→右拱腰衬砌外表面裂缝;(3)空洞尺寸变化显著改变了衬砌内力分布,空洞尺寸的增加,引起两空洞间衬砌结构轴力减小而弯矩增大,使两空洞间的衬砌结构破坏程度更严重;(4)衬砌背后空洞的位置及数量对隧道结构裂损过程有较大影响,衬砌背后存在双空洞时衬砌裂缝的传播过程更复杂。研究成果可为衬砌背后多空洞影响下衬砌裂缝病害的防治和修复提供参考。     

Resilience analysis of shield tunnel lining under extreme surcharge: Characterization and field application

A resilient system should have the ability to mitigate the disruption caused by unfavorable environment and to rapidly recover to an acceptable performance level. In this paper, a detailed model to assess resilience of shield tunnel is presented. The performance robustness under disruption and the subsequent recovery rapidity are emphasized in this model. The tunnel horizontal convergence is selected as the performance indicator. The resilience index (Re) is defined by the ratio of the integral of the performance transition function over the integral of the normal performance function. The rationality and applicability of the model is validated by a real case of extreme surcharge on Shanghai metro tunnel. In this case, the performance transition and the normal performance degradation are characterized by the measured data. 70–80% of the normal performance is disrupted due to the surcharge, but only 1% is recovered by unloading of the surcharge in 9 days and 12.4% is recovered after 4 years by the soil grouting in 38 days. It results in a resilience index (Re) between 0.28 and 0.45. The lesson learned from the case indicates that the high vulnerability of lining convergence due to the severe surcharge and the long time duration between recovery measures could result in weak resilient abilities for shield tunnels. The value of resilience index Re could be significantly increased by 73% on average if the recovery duration were shortened.     

Construction of a large-section long pedestrian underpass using pipe jacking in muddy silty clay: A case study

This paper presents a case study of constructing a large-section long pedestrian underpass using pipe jacking method in Nanjing, China. The underpass, having a width of 7 m and a height of 4.3 m, was jacked 94.5 m in muddy silty clay under a busy roadway with 6.2 m overburden soil, meanwhile it traverses above the existed shield metro tunnels with just 4.5 m from the underpass bottom to tunnel vault. This paper introduced the design and construction schemes of this project in detail. A pre-construction three dimensional numerical simulation was conducted to investigate the responses of the roadway and metro tunnels to pipe jacking construction. Based on the simulation results, the field monitoring program was proposed, and the tunnels deformation and ground settlement were constantly monitored. The field performances of the metro tunnels and roadway were analyzed according to the monitoring data. In the jacking process, the micro-underbreak method was adopted. In order to decrease the tunnels uplift and ground settlement, the actual volume of soil conveyed out from soil chamber to ground surface was kept 95–98% of theoretical soil volume cut by cutter head. In general, this project is completed successfully without taking any additional time and money-consuming deformation control measures. The ground traffic and underneath metro runs well during the whole construction process.     

Sequential excavation,NATM and ADECO: What they have in common and how they differ

Rabcewicz, 1964, Rabcewicz, 1965 maintained that “tunnels should be driven full face whenever possible”. ADECO, which stands for “Analysis of Controlled Deformations in tunnels”, now allows us to fulfill Rabcewicz’s dream in any stress–strain condition. In order to achieve that dream and its consequent control over cost and schedule, however, NATM must be abandoned for the ADECO. The paper traces the history of the sequential excavation, NATM (as first conceived) and Analysis of Controlled Deformations (ADECO) with the aim of shedding light on the unavoidable use of sequential excavation in “soft ground”, and of highlighting advances in tunnel design and construction that have occurred in Europe after and as alternates to the NATM. The paper presents the basic concepts in the ADECO approach to design, construction and monitoring of tunnels together with some case histories, including: full face excavation for Cassia tunnel (face area > 230 m²) in sands and silts under 5 m cover below an archeological area in Rome, Italy; Tartaguille tunnel (face area > 140 m²) advanced full face in highly swelling and squeezing ground under 100 m cover where NATM led to catastrophic failure, France; and 80 km of tunnels (face area > 140 m²) advanced full face in highly squeezing/swelling ground under 500 m cover for the high-speed railway line between Bologne and Florence, Italy (turnkey contract).     

Numerical analysis of different ventilation schemes during the construction process of inclined tunnel groups at the Changheba Hydropower Station,China

During the excavation process of underground caverns, the rational selection of the ventilation scheme is very important for the safety and health of construction workers. The flood discharge tunnel groups at the Changheba Hydropower Station are selected as a case to study the design of ventilation schemes in inclined tunnel groups; these groups are characterized by a gradient of approximately 10% and a complex intersecting relationship among the tunnels. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method is used to simulate the fluid dynamics in tunnel groups when different ventilation schemes are employed. Four ventilation schemes with the same duct at different positions along the transverse section are formulated, and the scheme approaching the right side with most of the construction adits is adopted in engineering after a comparative analysis, as it offers a well-distributed velocity field and sufficient security distance. The study reveals that flow vortices appear in the tunnels with a long axis length ranging from 5 m to 20 m; the observation that the flow velocity on the transverse sections is away from the heading face indicates that a low-velocity area is always present in the vicinity of an air duct, and the security distance on the upstream side is 60% shorter than on the downstream side with the same air-blower when the tunnels have a 10% gradient. In addition, when the excavation distance rises 200 m, the ventilation condition in the tunnels, especially in the areas around tunnel intersections, is greatly improved by the completion of pilot tunnels and shafts in advance.