Cyclic shear behavior of GMB/GCL composite liner

The composite liner system consisting of geomembrane (GMB) and geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) has been widely used in landfills. Although there have been a lot of studies on the monotonic shear behavior of GMB/GCL composite liner, the dynamic test data are still very limited and consequently, the dynamic shear mechanism is not clear. A series of displacement-controlled cyclic shear tests were conducted to study the shear behavior of GMB/GCL composite liner, including the shear stress versus horizontal displacement relationships, backbone curves, and shear strengths. Hysteretic loops in the shape of parallelogram were obtained and equivalent linear analyses revealed that the secant shear stiffness decreased and the damping ratio increased with the rise in loading cycles. According to the test results, it is generally acceptable to predict the dynamic peak strength of a GMB/GCL composite liner with its static strength envelope. Furthermore, the dynamic softening mechanism and rate-dependent shear stiffnesses were well described by the proposed equations, which also facilitate the accurate modeling of the cyclic shear behavior.     

Dynamic shear behaviors of textured geomembrane/nonwoven geotextile interface under cyclic loading

Textured geomembrane (GMB) and nonwoven geotextile (GTX) are usually used together in liner systems of MSW landfills, but the low shear strength of GMB/GTX interface is extremely detrimental to the stability of landfills, especially under earthquake loading. To study the dynamic shear strength of the GMB/GTX interface, a series of displacement-controlled cyclic direct shear tests are conducted with a large-scale direct shear machine. Normal stress levels ranging from 100 to 1000 kPa and displacement amplitudes ranging from 5 to 25 mm are considered. To compare the failure mechanism, GMB and GTX specimens are tested in not only hydrated but also dry conditions. Different waveforms and excitation frequencies are also applied to analyze the effects of test conditions. It can be seen that the shear deformation develops totally along the GMB/GTX interface when specimens are fully hydrated, while the internal failure of GTX is induced in dry condition. Equivalent linear analyses reveal that the shear stiffness depends on normal stress and displacement amplitude, while the damping ratio is only affected by displacement amplitude. Variations of shear strength during the shear process indicate that the softening behavior of the GMB/GTX interface is closely related to cumulative displacement and normal stress level. Furthermore, based on test results, a positive correlation is summarized between the shear strength and displacement rate of the interface.     

Assessment of consolidation-induced VOC transport for a GML/GCL/CCL composite liner system

In municipal solid waste landfills, a triple-layer composite liner consisting of a geomembrane liner (GML), a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) and a compacted clay liner (CCL) is commonly used at the landfill bottom to isolate the leachates from surrounding environment. This paper presents a numerical investigation of the effect of liner consolidation on the transport of a volatile organic compound (VOC), trichloroethylene (TCE), through the GML/GCL/CCL composite liner system. The numerical simulations were performed using the model CST3, which is a piecewise linear numerical model for coupled consolidation and solute transport in multi-layered soil media and has been extensively validated using analytical solutions, numerical solutions and experimental results. The performed numerical simulations considered coupled consolidation and contaminant transport with representative geometry, material properties, and applied stress conditions for a GML/GCL/CCL liner system. The simulation results indicate that, depending on conditions, consolidation of the GCL and CCL can have significant impact on the transport results of TCE (i.e., TCE mass flux, cumulative TCE mass outflow, and distribution of TCE concentration within the GCL and CCL), both during the consolidation process and long after the completion of consolidation. The traditional approach for the assessment of liner performance neglects consolidation of the GCL and CCL and fails to consider the consolidation-induced transient advection and concurrent changes in material properties and, therefore, can lead to significantly different results. These differences for with and without the consolidation effects can range over several orders of magnitude. The process of consolidation-induced contaminant transport is complex and involves many variables, and therefore case-specific analysis is necessary to assess the significance of liner consolidation on VOC transport through a GML/GCL/CCL composite liner system.     

Contaminant mitigating performance of Chinese standard municipal solid waste landfill liner systems

In 2004, Chinese Government prescribed standard municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill bottom liners. However, very limited research has been conducted to evaluate the performance of the standard MSW landfill bottom liners prescribed by the Chinese Government. In this paper, the performance of the two types of Chinese MSW landfill bottom liner systems was evaluated based on: (1) the maximum leachate head; (2) leakage rate; (3) peak concentration of the target contaminant in an aquifer which was underlain the assumed landfill, and (4) total mass per unit area of the target contaminant discharged into the aquifer. The performance of the German standard MSW landfill bottom liner system was evaluated and compared with that of Chinese ones. It is found that the calculated maximum leachate head for the Chinese landfill liner systems was much higher than that for the German one. The calculated leakage rate, peak concentration and the maximum total mass per unit area in the aquifer of the target contaminant show that the performance of the Chinese standard landfill liner Type 2 is practically the same as that of the German standard landfill liner with holed geomembrane wrinkles, while the Chinese standard liner Type 1 is less effective, with regarding the mitigation of the impact of landfills to the groundwater quality. It is concluded that the overall performance of the Chinese standard landfill liner systems is less strict than that of the German standard landfill liner system.     

粉土界面恒刚度循环剪切试验研究

竖向循环荷载作用下桩土界面的作用机理是研究桩土摩擦疲劳的关键。针对循环荷载作用下桩-粉土界面的剪切性能,使用改进的剪切试验装置在恒刚度条件下进行循环剪切试验,研究循环次数、累积位移和法向刚度对其摩擦疲劳性能、循环后单调剪切性能的影响。试验结果表明,粉土在循环剪切过程中,法向应力和剪应力在初始10个循环内随循环数增加快速衰减,随着循环进行,逐渐趋于稳定;单次循环内在剪切位移方向变化时,土体呈现表现出剪缩-剪胀-剪缩交替现象,总体变形呈现剪缩的趋势;循环荷载作用下,粉土界面的法向应力和剪应力随法向刚度增大衰减速率增大,达到稳定的累积循环位移越小;粉土循环后的单调剪切、法向应力恢复的单调剪切的剪应力比小于首次单调剪切试验值,且法向应力恢复的循环后剪切试验的剪胀程度较小,表明循环剪切过程中界面处粉土颗粒棱角破碎,颗粒变得光滑。在对试验数据分析的基础上,提出了与累积位移、法向刚度和初始应力相关的无量纲累积位移,建立了法向应力和界面摩擦角随累积位移的衰减方程。     

不同剪切速率下格栅–土界面循环剪切及其后直剪特性

 为了研究剪切速率对砂土与土工格栅界面剪切特性的影响,采用室内大型直剪仪对土工格栅加筋砂土试样分别进行不同剪切速率下的单调直剪试验、循环直剪试验,并在循环直剪试验结束后接着对试样进行单调直剪试验,研究了剪切速率对筋土界面剪切应力、剪切体变的影响,对比分析不同剪切速率下单调直剪试验的结果与经受过循环剪切后的单调直剪试验结果的差异。试验表明：剪切速率对单调直剪条件下筋土界面的剪切特性影响不大;循环剪切过程中,低剪切速率和高剪切速率下分别发生循环剪切软化和循环剪切硬化现象;剪切速率对循环剪切后的筋土界面直剪特性影响较明显,受循环剪切后筋土界面的抗剪强度比不受循环剪切作用的要低。     

循环直剪条件下粗粒土与结构接触面颗粒破碎研究

循环剪切条件下粗粒土与结构接触面颗粒破碎规律的定量研究具有重要意义。循环剪切时,接触面产生了明显的颗粒破碎,并显著影响其宏观力学响应。接触面颗粒破碎细观上表现为大颗粒破碎、小颗粒含量增加及大孔隙的减少或消失,统计上表现为粒径分布曲线的抬升和特征粒径的减小,宏观上表现为接触面不可逆性剪切体变;且不可逆性剪切体变可作为接触面颗粒破碎等物态演化的宏观度量。接触面颗粒破碎主要由剪切引起,相对破碎率与剪切路程、不可逆性剪切体变与相对破碎率间的关系均可用双曲线描述。法向应力越大、结构面板越粗糙、硬度越小,接触面颗粒破碎和损伤越严重;且相对破碎率与法向应力间符合幂函数关系;剪切路径对接触面相对破碎率影响较小。     

Failure mechanisms of geosynthetic clay liner and textured geomembrane composite systems

The objective of this study was to evaluate shear behavior and failure mechanisms of composite systems comprised of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) and textured geomembrane (GMX). Internal and interface direct shear tests were performed at normal stresses ranging from 100 kPa to 2000 kPa on eight different GCL/GMX composite systems. These composite systems were selected to assess the effects of (i) GCL peel strength, (ii) geotextile type, (iii) geotextile mass per area, and (iv) GMX spike density. Three failure modes were observed for the composite systems: complete interface failure, partial interface/internal failure, and complete internal failure. Increasing normal stress transitioned the failure mode from complete interface to partial interface/internal to complete internal failure. The peak critical shear strength of GCL/GMX composite systems increased with an increase in GMX spike density. However, the effect of geotextile type and mass per area more profoundly influenced peak critical shear strength at normal stress > 500 kPa, whereby an increase in geotextile mass per area enhanced interlocking between a non-woven geotextile and GMX. Peel strength of a GCL only influenced the GCL/GMX critical shear strength when the failure mode was complete internal failure.     

垃圾填埋场多层复合衬垫的破坏面特征

多层土工合成材料复合衬垫的极限破坏面特性是垃圾填埋场稳定分析的重要问题,单一固定破坏面的观点已经被广泛接受。在多层土工合成材料复合衬垫的整体叠环式单剪试验后发现极限破坏界面并非单一固定,而是随着法向应力的变化发生由一个界面向另一界面转移,且在一定的法向应力范围内还可能同时出现两个具有相同剪切强度的极限破坏界面;多层土工合成材料复合衬垫中各层的剪切应力–位移曲线是硬化型的,衬垫系统的剪切强度总是低于极限破坏界面的剪切强度。试验结果表明,叠环式单剪仪能更正确和合理地模拟填埋场中的多层复合衬垫在加载过程中的实际剪切变形情况和复合衬垫中材料间的相互作用,从而能更好地揭示多层复合衬垫系统的整体剪切特性。     

Seismic behavior of T‐shaped steel reinforced concrete shear walls in tall buildings under cyclic loading

Shear walls are often used as the primary lateral load resisting elements in high‐rise buildings because of their large in‐plane stiffness and strength. It is a common practice to combine rectangular walls to form T‐shaped, I‐shaped and L‐shaped walls for functionality and esthetic reasons. Three relatively slender steel reinforced concrete (SRC) shear walls with T‐shaped cross‐sections were constructed and tested to failure under cyclic lateral loading. This research was conducted to assess the failure mechanism, hysteretic behavior, ductility and energy dissipating capacity of SRC T‐shaped walls under various axial load ratios. All the specimens exhibited a flexural mode characterized by crushing of the concrete and buckling of the steel at the free web boundary. The experimental results showed good hysteretic characteristics without pinching phenomena. The ductility coefficient varied from 2.3 to 4.1, and the deformation capability decreased with the increasing of axial load ratios. The stiffness, strength and ductility of T‐shaped walls are dependent upon the direction of the applied lateral loads. Higher stiffness and strength and lower ductility are achieved when the flange is in tension. The failure mechanism suggested that special attention should be paid to the design of the free web boundary to prevent premature failure under compression. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of composite shear wall behavior under cyclic loadings

Composite steel shear walls (CSSW) are widely used in civil projects due to its high stiffness and deformability. It can be utilized by either laying a concrete layer connected to the steel plate by shear studs or bonding a Fiber Reinforced Polymer sheet. The present experimental and numerical investigations were focused on the effects of shear studs spacing variation, middle beam rigidity and the method of beam to column connection on the CSSW behavior. Results indicate that increasing the shear studs spacing reduces the slope of load-displacement curve and improves ductility up to a specific studs’ spacing. In addition, the effects of middle beam rigidity and beam to column connections are insignificant on the composite steel shear walls behavior.     

Dynamic behavior of reinforced clayey sand under cyclic loading

Experimental investigations and modeling of linear elasticity of fiber-reinforced clayey sand under cyclic loading unloading are conducted in this paper. Experimental studies are focused on four aspects. First, a series of cyclic triaxial tests, with different confining pressures and deviator stress ratios up to 150 cycles, are performed. Impacts of fiber content, cell pressure, deviator stress ratio and loading unloading repetition that affect dynamic behavior of the composite material are discussed. It is shown that shear modulus decreases with increasing deviator stress ratio at high confining pressure and the rate of loss of shear modulus found to be much lower for fiber reinforced specimens. Other results show that increase of shear modulus with loading repetition is more pronounced at higher deviator stress ratios. Second, the optimum fiber content is experimented under cyclic loading unloading and is expressed as a power function of deviatoric stress ratio. It is shown that optimum fiber content is not constant and it is affected by deviator stress ratio. Third, a function is introduced to describe the linear stress–strain curve under cyclic loading unloading using equivalent linear analysis. The shear modulus G is expressed as a function of fiber content, confining pressure, deviatoric stress ratio and loading repetition. Finally constitutive coefficients of the model parameters are calibrated by the results of cyclic triaxial shear tests and using the linear regression.     

法向循环荷载下筋土界面的剪切应力规律及预测

为了研究法向动荷载作用下筋土界面的剪切应力变化规律,采用大型动态直剪仪,对相对密实度为75%的砾石和土工格栅的界面进行了剪切试验,研究了4种法向初始应力（20,40,60,80 kPa）和4种法向荷载振动幅值（10,20,30,40 kPa）对筋土界面循环剪切特性的影响。在试验的基础上,建立了法向循环荷载作用下筋土界面在峰值前和残余阶段的剪切应力-法向应力表达式。同时,结合应力时间差规律,并考虑法向初始应力和荷载振幅等的影响,提出了界面剪切应力-剪切位移的表达式。将两种预测表达式与试验结果进行了对比,均具有较好的吻合度,验证了方法的正确性。     

循环荷载作用下粗粒土与结构接触面变形特性的试验研究

使用新研制的大型土与结构接触面循环加载剪切仪,对粗粒土与结构接触面在循环荷载作用下的力学特性进行了系统的试验研究,从宏观和细观两个层次进行了分析测量,讨论了循环荷载作用下接触面受力变形的规律和机理。试验表明,在循环荷载作用下,粗粒土与结构接触面的相对法向位移总体上表现为单调增长,但在一个剪切循环内表现出有规律的增减变化,因此接触面的剪胀体变可以划分为可逆性和不可逆性两个分量。接触面表现出由于初次剪切造成的细观结构异向性导致的宏观结构异向性。剪切过程中接触面存在着土颗粒破碎和剪切压密两种物态变化机制,共同支配着接触面力学性质的变化。     

Analysis of cyclic shear characteristics of reinforced soil interfaces under cyclic loading and unloading

The cyclic properties of geosynthetic soil interface are crucial for reinforced soil structures subject to seismic loading. A series of cyclic direct tests under cyclic normal loading was conducted on geogrid-gravel interface. The relationship among the amplitudes of cyclic normal loading and shear displacement and frequencies in the horizontal and vertical directions with interface shear strength and volume change was investigated. Test results showed that the relative time shift, shear stiffness, and enhance coefficient increased with increasing amplitude of cyclic normal loading. The interface exhibited shear hardening and softening with increasing amplitude of shear displacement. The vertical displacement decreased with increasing amplitude of cyclic normal loading but increased with increasing amplitude of shear displacement. Furthermore, three patterns were analysed for different frequencies in two loading directions. The value of vertical displacement was largest when the normal loading impact frequency was larger than the cyclic horizontal shear frequency, and smallest at equal frequencies in two loading directions. The shear stiffness was positively correlated with the amplitude of cyclic normal loading. However, it was negatively correlated with the amplitude of shear displacement. The value of the damping ratio was smallest under constant normal loading at a shear displacement amplitude of 0.5 mm.     

剪切路径对土与结构接触面三维循环特性影响研究

运用80t大型三维接触面试验机,通过改变往返圆弧剪切路径的半径和旋转角度幅值研究不同剪切路径下接触面三维循环力学特性,重点分析了剪切路径的影响规律。剪切路径由于影响两正交切向位移大小、方向转变及结构面附近土颗粒运动形态,从而导致接触面剪切体变及可逆性剪切体变-x或y向位移关系、切向应力位移关系及切向应力间关系形式差异显著。随旋转角度幅值的增大,接触面x向应力位移关系形式由双曲线向椭圆形转变;残余摩擦角由35°逐渐减小到33°,而后趋于稳定;峰值摩擦角则保持35°不变。不同剪切路径下接触面力学特性亦有诸多相同之处：抗剪强度具有各向同性;往返型路径下均产生明显的不可逆性和可逆性剪切体变,随循环剪切的进行,前者单调增长,后者峰值逐渐减小而后趋于稳定;不同剪切路径下接触面可逆性剪切体变-主切向位移关系及主剪应力-主切向位移关系具有良好的一致性;且后者曲线形式随循环剪切的进行由双曲线形式逐渐向理想弹塑性模式转变。     

钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的剪切滞回性能试验研究

为提高低矮钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的数值模拟精度,完善混凝土在循环荷载作用下的剪切本构理论,进行6个钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的循环剪切试验,研究配筋率及钢筋角度对钢筋混凝土剪力墙板在循环剪切应力作用下滞回性能及累积耗能能力的影响,得到试件的滞回曲线、骨架曲线、延性、刚度退化、累积耗能能力等。试验结果表明：所有试件均发生剪切破坏模式。配筋率对钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的抗剪承载力有一定影响,对其变形能力影响不明显。钢筋角度对钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的滞回曲线有显著影响,分布钢筋与剪力墙剪切斜裂缝夹角越小,其滞回曲线越饱满,累积塑性剪切角、累积延性比、等效黏滞阻尼比及累积塑性耗能系数越大,但其初始剪切刚度反而越低。该文的试验结果可为完善混凝土的本构理论提供参考。     

Dynamic stress accumulation effects on soil strength under cyclic loading

To further understand the influence of dynamic stress accumulation effects on soil strength under cyclic loading, a series of dynamic–static coupling tests and stepwise cyclic loading tests were carried out using typical granite residual soil. The mechanism of dynamic stress accumulation was analyzed from the macro and micro perspectives, and the effect thereof on soil strength was discussed from the perspectives of energy and mechanics. The test results showed that a dynamic stress accumulation effect would occur in the soil under cyclic loading, which was one of the main reasons for the failure of the soil structure and the change of the strength. When the accumulation degree was small, the effect facilitated the compaction of soil, and improved the static load strength of the soil. When the accumulation degree exceeded a certain threshold, the effect resulted in rapid the soil damage. The greater the dynamic stress accumulation in the soil, the more obvious the weakening degree of the progressive cyclic loading strength. At the same time, the more prone the soil to dynamic stress accumulation, the greater the internal accumulation of variable situation energy. Failure occurred when the dynamic stress accumulation in the soil exceeded the bearing capacity of the structure, providing further insight for solving the negative impact of dynamic stress accumulation on subgrade soil.     

Geomembrane strains from coarse gravel and wrinkles in a GM/GCL composite liner

The physical response of a 1.5-mm-thick, high-density polyethylene geomembrane (GM) is reported when placed on top of a needle-punched geosynthetic clay liner (GCL), buried beneath 50-mm coarse gravel and subjected to vertical pressure in laboratory experiments. Local strains in the geomembrane caused by indentations from the overlying gravel and deflections of a wrinkle in the geomembrane are quantified. A peak strain of 20% was calculated when a flat geomembrane was tested without a protection layer at an applied vertical pressure of 250 kPa. Strains were smaller with a nonwoven needle-punched geotextile protection layer between the gravel and geomembrane. Increasing the mass per unit area of the geotextile up to 2200 g/m² reduced the geomembrane strain. However, none of the geotextiles tested were sufficient to reduce the geomembrane strain below an allowable limit of 3%, for the particular 50-mm gravel tested and when subjected to a vertical pressure of 250 kPa. Increasing the initial GCL water content and reducing the stiffness of the foundation layer beneath the GCL were found to increase the geomembrane strains. These local strains were greater when a wrinkle was present in the geomembrane. The wrinkle in the geomembrane experienced a decrease in height and width. The wrinkle deformations lead to larger pressures beside the wrinkle and hence producing larger local strains. A 150-mm-thick sand protection layer was effective in limiting the peak strain to less than 0.3% even with a wrinkle in the geomembrane, at a vertical pressure of 250 kPa.