Analyzing the influence of facing batter on reinforcement loads of reinforced soil walls under working stress conditions

The level of reinforcement loads in a reinforced soil retaining wall is important to its satisfactory operation under working stress conditions since it basically determines the wall deformation. Consequently, proper estimation of the reinforcement load is a necessary step in the service limit-state design of this type of earth retaining structures. In this study, a force equilibrium approach is proposed to quantify the influence of facing batter on the reinforcement loads of reinforced soil walls under working stress conditions. The approach is then combined with a nonlinear elastic approach for GRS walls without batter to estimate the reinforcement loads neglecting toe restraint. The approximate average mobilized soil strength in the retaining wall is employed in the force equilibrium analysis. The predictions of reinforcement loads by the proposed method were compared to the experimental results from four large-scale tests. It is shown that the proposed semianalytical approach has the capacity to reproduce the reinforcement loads with acceptable accuracy. Some remaining issues are also pinpointed.     

Geosynthetic reinforcement stiffness for analytical and numerical modelling of reinforced soil structures

Many analytical and numerical analysis and design methods for geosynthetic-reinforced soil structures require a single-value (constant) estimate of reinforcement stiffness. However, geosynthetic reinforcement products are rate-dependent polymeric materials meaning that they exhibit time and strain-dependent behaviour under load. Hence, the appropriate selection of a constant (elastic) stiffness value requires careful consideration. A simple hyperbolic stiffness model is shown to be a useful approximation to the constant-load isochronous creep-strain behaviour of these materials at low load levels applicable to operational (serviceability) conditions of geosynthetic-reinforced soil structures. A large database of 606 creep tests on 89 different geosynthetic reinforcement products falling within seven different product categories was collected. From these data, isochronous stiffness values were determined for different combinations of duration of loading and strain level. Data from products falling within the same category were collected together to provide approximations linking the isochronous load-strain (creep) stiffness to the ultimate tensile strength of the material. These approximations are useful for analytical and numerical modelling particularly when parametric studies are undertaken to identify the sensitivity of model outcomes to reinforcement stiffness. Finally, three different geosynthetic-reinforced soil application examples are provided to demonstrate the important role of tensile stiffness on analysis and design outcomes.     

Three-dimensional finite element analysis of geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls with turning corners

The paper presents in-depth three-dimensional finite element analyses investigating geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls with turning corners. Validation of the 3D numerical procedure was first performed via comparisons between the simulated and reported results of a benchmark physical modeling built at the Royal Military College of Canada. GRS walls with corners of 90°, 105°, 120°, 135°, 150°, and 180° were simulated adopting the National Concrete Masonry Association guidelines. The behaviors of the GRS walls with corners, including the lateral facing displacement, maximum reinforcement load, factor of safety, potential failure surface, vertical separation of facing blocks, and types of corners were carefully evaluated. Our comprehensive results show (i) minimum lateral displacement occurs at the corner; (ii) lower strength of reinforcements are required at the corner; (iii) higher corner angles lead to lower stability; (iv) potential failure surface forms earlier at the end walls; (v) deeper potential failure surfaces are found at the corners; (vi) larger numbers of vertical separations are found at walls with smaller corner angles. The paper highlighted the salient influence of the corners on the behaviors of GRS walls and indicated that a 3D analysis could reflect the required reinforcement length and the irregular formation of the potential failure surfaces.     

Earth pressure coefficients for reinforcement loads of vertical geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls under working stress conditions

Based on the nonlinear elastic theory and stress-dilatancy theory, two earth pressure coefficients were proposed to analyze the reinforcement loads at the potential failure surface of vertical geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls under working stress conditions. The earth pressure coefficients take into account the force equilibrium and compatible deformations between soil and reinforcement, and can be obtained by solving two implicit functions by an iterative or graphic method. The effects of backfill compaction and facing restriction are taken into account in the earth pressure coefficients by two additional stress factors, which have been derived analytically using straightforward approaches. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed methods, comparisons were made with the results from large scale tests and numerical simulations. It was demonstrated that the reinforcement loads predicted by the proposed methods were in good agreement with the experimental or numerical results.     

Influence of uncertainty in geosynthetic stiffness on deterministic and probabilistic analyses using analytical solutions for three reinforced soil problems

The paper examines the quantitative influence of uncertainty in the estimate of geosynthetic reinforcement stiffness on numerical outcomes using analytical solutions for a) the maximum outward facing deformation in mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, b) maximum reinforcement tensile loads and strain in MSE walls under operational conditions, and c) the mobilized reinforcement stiffness in a geosynthetic layer used to reinforce a fill over a void. The stiffness of the reinforcement is modelled using an isochronous two-parameter hyperbolic load-strain model. A linear relationship between isochronous stiffness and the ultimate tensile strength of the reinforcement is used to estimate reinforcement stiffness when product-specific creep data are not available at time of design. Solution outcomes are presented deterministically and probabilistically. The quantitative link between nominal factor of safety used in deterministic working stress design practice and reliability index is provided. The latter is preferred in modern performance-based design to quantify margins of safety within a probabilistic framework. Finally, the paper highlights the practical benefit of using product-specific isochronous secant stiffness data when available, rather than estimates of isochronous stiffness values based on reinforcement type or pooled data.     

Behaviour of geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall with concrete-rigid facing

Monitoring was carried out during construction of a cast-in-situ concrete-rigid facing geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall in the Gan (Zhou)-Long (Yan) railway main line of China. The monitoring included the vertical foundation pressure and lateral earth pressure of the reinforced soil wall facing, the tensile strain in the reinforcement and the horizontal deformation of the facing. The vertical foundation pressure of reinforced soil retaining wall is non-linear along the reinforcement length, and the maximum value is at the middle of the reinforcement length, moreover the value reduces gradually at top and bottom. The measured lateral earth pressure within the reinforced soil wall is non-linear along the height and the value is less than the active lateral earth pressure. The distribution of tensile strain in the geogrid reinforcements within the upper portion of the wall is single-peak value, but the distribution of tensile strain in the reinforcements within the lower portion of the wall has double-peak values. The potential failure plane within the upper portion of the wall is similar to “0.3H method”, whereas the potential failure plane within portion of the lower wall is closer to the active Rankine earth pressure theory. The position of the maximum lateral displacement of the wall face during construction is within portion of the lower wall, moreover the position of the maximum lateral displacement of the wall face post-construction is within the portion of the top wall. These monitoring results of the behaviour of the wall can be used as a reference for future study and design of geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall systems.     

Experimental investigation of a reinforced soil retaining wall with a flexible geogrid-wrapped ecological bag facing

This paper presented a field study of the reinforced soil wall (RSW) with a geogrid wrap-around facing. In addition to the conventional monitoring content, the strain of the face-wrapping geogrid, which was neglected in most previous studies, was monitored during the construction process. The positional relationship between the maximum vertical earth pressure and horizontally laid geogrid strain was revealed by using the proposed oblique dragging effect. It was found that the strain on the face-wrapping geogrid occurred mainly in the early stage of construction. The oblique dragging effect existing in the flexible RSWs increased the vertical earth pressure and changed its distribution law, resulting in the position of the maximum vertical soil pressure appearing behind the position of the maximum horizontally laid geogrid strain. The horizontal earth pressure at different positions behind the wall was obviously lower than the theoretical result by using Rankine's theory. Also, a modified 0.3H method (where H refers to the wall height) was presented to account for the slope of the wall face, which could be used to determine the potential sliding surfaces for single-stage RSWs and two-tier RSWs with small offset.     

台阶宽度对加筋土挡墙垂直应力的影响研究

 为了研究台阶式加筋土挡墙平台宽度对下墙墙体垂直应力大小及分布的影响,进行3组不同平台宽度的台阶式加筋土挡墙室内模型试验。试验结果表明：台阶式加筋土挡墙基底垂直应力随着填土高度的增加而增大,最大值出现在墙面板附近;随着墙间台阶宽度的增加,基底垂直应力沿筋长的分布形式由“V”字形逐渐过渡到倒“S”形;过大的台阶宽度对双级加筋土挡墙基底垂直应力的减载效果不明显;修正的FHWA方法和修正的Gray弹性解方法可较为准确计算基底垂直应力;随着墙顶荷载加载位置距墙面板距离的增加,基底垂直应力逐渐减小;墙顶施加荷载后下墙筋材中后部垂直应力增长较大,而拉筋始端垂直应力变化较小。     

土坡稳定分析最小折减安全系数评价体系研究

借助简单均质土坡安全系数精确解析式,采用最优化方法的枚举法搜索最小可靠指标βmin和安全系数Fsmin(及对应的可靠指标βFmin)。对安全系数法和可靠指标法两大评价体系以及βmin和βFmin的相互关系和差异性等方面进行了例证比较分析,同时揭示了传统条分法(GLE法)计算值的保守性以及在某些滑弧出现反翘(即存在被动土体区域)情况下对滑弧形状的判断失误。考虑土性参数分布类型及变异特征的影响,利用Monte-Carlo法求解各个假想滑弧的安全系数Fsi和失效概率Pfi,并以Pfi对Fsi进行折减(定义为折减安全系数FsRi=Fsi(1-Pfi))建立了以最小折减安全系数FsR=min(FsRi)为评价标准的边坡稳定联合评价体系。通过典型算例证明该评价体系与文献中的二元指标体系有很好的一致性。     

面板倾角对模块式面板加筋土挡墙筋材内力的影响

土工合成材料加筋土挡墙具有良好的力学性能和优越的经济性等优点,在国内外得到了越来越广泛的应用。然而,众多加筋土挡墙的试验数据表明,对加筋土挡墙受力机理的理论研究是滞后于工程建设实践的。针对筋材内力计算这一重要问题,研究了面板倾角对加筋土挡墙筋材内力的影响。首先,以RMC试验挡墙为原型,验证了数值模拟方法的有效性;然后,利用数值模拟方法,分析了不同工况下,加筋土挡墙内竖向土压力和筋材应变随着面板倾角增大的变化趋势。数值模拟结果表明,筋材内力随着加筋土挡墙面板倾角的增大而降低。在数值研究结果的基础上,从潜在滑动面附近土单元应力状态及滑动楔形体的平衡两个方面分析了面板倾角的作用机理,定位了填土竖向土压力以及面板基底水平摩擦阻力两个影响筋材内力的关键因素。     

Experimental and upper-bound study of the influence of soilbag tail length on the reinforcement effect in soil slopes

Soilbags have good reinforcement effect on soil slopes. In this paper, traditional soilbag is modified by adding a tail to it. Model tests have been used to study the influence of soilbag tail length on the reinforcement effect in soilbags reinforced slopes. Moreover, a permissive failure pattern and a corresponding velocity field have been established based on the experimental results. Then, the ultimate failure heights of the reinforced slopes are obtained by using the upper-bound solution theory and compared with the experimental results. Both the experimental and analytical results show that within a certain limit, the reinforcement effect improves with the increase of tail length. However, when the tail length is over a certain value, the increase of the tail length does not improve the reinforcement effect any more. This provides theoretical basis to the optimized design of soilbags reinforced slopes.     

基于增量法的土钉墙支护设计方法研究

对于土钉支护设计,与复杂的计算分析相比,简化设计方法更加实用。在增量法的基础上,提出了一套基于增量法的完整的土钉墙设计方法。土钉支护设计计算所用的荷载建议采用考虑放坡的库仑主动土压力;土钉的内力可采用增量法进行计算,进而求出土钉所需的钢筋直径;建议采用库仑滑动面确定土钉的最大内力作用点,根据已确定的土钉的最大内力和库仑滑动面的位置计算土钉伸入到锚固土体里的长度,从而得到各排土钉的总长度;整体稳定采用《建筑基坑支护技术规程》(JGJ120—99)建议的方法进行验算。提供了一个成功应用基于增量法的土钉墙设计方法进行设计的工程实例,工程实践表明应用该方法进行设计是简便可行的。     

采用K–刚度法设计的模块式加筋土挡墙数值模拟

基于一采用K–刚度法设计的模块式加筋土挡墙建立有限差分数值模型,并采用界面双曲线模型真实模拟底层模块–水平基座界面及水平基座–地基界面,研究实际模块式加筋土挡墙在工作应力下的性状,并进一步分析墙趾界面剪切特性。结果表明:数值计算的挡墙筋材应变分布、填土中各层筋材最大拉力、墙面筋材连接力和墙面最大位移值与实测值比较吻合;K–刚度法计算的填土中筋材最大拉力值与数值模拟和实测值吻合较好,但墙面连接处筋材因受地基沉降和填土压实产生的下拉力影响而大于填土中筋材最大拉力,故K–刚度法不能用于墙面筋材连接力的验算;相较于刚性地基,压缩性地基上模块式加筋土挡墙的墙趾正应力系数较大,而墙趾承担荷载比例较小;尽管基座–地基界面剪切刚度较模块–基座界面小很多,由于其承受的剪应力也很小,墙趾并不会沿着基座–地基界面发生滑移破坏,模块–基座界面对挡墙墙趾起到主要的约束作用。     

条带式刚性面板加筋土挡墙筋带应变响应特性研究

 基于大型振动台模型试验,研究条带式刚性面板挡墙在地震波作用下筋带的应变响应特征,并结合土体相对密实度、面板位移以及频谱特征,探究加筋土挡墙的潜在损伤规律。试验结果表明：随着地震波加载幅值增大,筋带主要受力区域从潜在破坏区移至加筋稳定区;对筋带应变分析显示墙内破坏从中部开始,逐渐向下部发展,中下部更易发生破坏;潜在破裂面研究表明挡墙的破裂面形式类似0.3 H(H为墙高)折线形式,但区域大于规范上的破裂面;在0.1 g～0.3 g地震波作用下相对密实度随加载峰值增加而增大,0.4 g以后相对密实度减小,土体发生损伤,与应变规律一致;不同地震波加载前后输入的白噪声傅里叶谱显示,地震波向上传播其频谱由单峰值逐渐发展为双峰值,且0.4 g以后第二峰值频率有逐渐增大趋势。该研究成果可为更加合理地考虑地震区的加筋土挡墙结构的设计提供指导。     

既有玻璃幕墙安全性评价方法与防治措施探讨

设计、施工、监管等原因使得既有玻璃幕墙随着幕墙使用年限增长,其安全性能逐渐降低。既有玻璃幕墙的安全工作是备受关心的问题之一。结合大量幕墙工程检测资料,考虑到引起玻璃幕墙安全性能的主要因素,提出一种简便的既有玻璃幕墙安全性评价方法。针对主要的影响因素进行分析并提出相应的应对措施,以保障幕墙结构的安全性与可靠性。     

加筋土高边坡挡墙方案设计研究

该文以某机场高边坡工程为背景,采用有限元强度折减法对高陡边坡进行了数值模拟,并进行了边坡设计方案的比选。文中着重对加筋土高陡边坡挡墙稳定分析的数值模拟方法及过程进行了介绍,列出了各种方案的稳定安全系数与经济效益对比,计算结果显示,在高陡边坡的支护中,加筋土挡墙有着独特的技术优势及显著的经济效益。     

Instability of a geogrid reinforced soil wall on thick soft Shanghai clay with prefabricated vertical drains: A case study

A 7.6 m high geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall (RSW) was constructed at the end of an embankment on very thick, soft Shanghai clay with 12 m deep prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs). The settlement of the ground, the wall movement and pore water pressure were monitored during the construction. From day 118, halfway through the construction, unexpected pore water pressure increment was recorded from the pore water pressure meters installed in the PVD drained zone indicating a possible malfunction of the PVDs due to large deformation in the ground. After the last loading stage, on day 190, a sudden horizontal movement at the toe was observed, followed by an arc shaped crack on the embankment surface at the end of the reinforced backfill zones. The wall was analyzed with a coupled mechanical and hydraulic finite element (FE) model. The analysis considered two scenarios: one with PVDs fully functional, and the second one with PVD failure after day 118 by manually deactivating the PVDs in the FE model. The comparison between the measured and simulated ground settlement, toe movement, and pore water pressure supported the assumption on the malfunction of the PVDs. It is believed that the general sliding failure in the wall was caused by the increase of pore water pressure in the foundation soil and soils in front of the toe. It is suggested that possible failure of PVDs should be considered in the design of such structures, and the discharge rate of the PVDs and the pore water pressure should be closely monitored during the construction of high soil walls on soft soils to update the stability of the structures, especially for grounds where large deformations are expected which may cause the failure of the PVDs.     

钢筋混凝土剪力墙轴拉试验和轴拉刚度理论分析

文章完成截面纵筋率为17%、25%的钢筋混凝土剪力墙轴拉试验。试验结果表明：剪力墙轴拉刚度在混凝土开裂前由钢筋和混凝土共同提供,并随轴拉力的增加逐渐下降;在混凝土开裂时轴拉刚度迅速下降;在开裂后混凝土退出工作,轴拉刚度逐渐趋于截面纵筋刚度。基于试验结果,完成剪力墙的轴拉受力特性和刚度变化特征的理论分析,提出能够描述钢筋混凝土剪力墙轴拉刚度变化特征的二阶段计算方法：在混凝土开裂前及开裂时根据混凝土本构模型获得的受拉弹性模量进行计算,在开裂后则引入纵向受拉钢筋应变不均匀系数进行计算。由此得到的理论值与试验结果更为吻合,更能反映剪力墙在轴拉阶段的受力和刚度变化特征。     

土体抗剪强度指标变异水平对边坡稳定安全系数取值的影响

针对传统的边坡稳定极限平衡方法不能考虑土体抗剪强度指标变异性影响的问题,基于极限状态的概率分析原理,采用 Monte-Carlo 法对均质路堤边坡的稳定性开展了可靠度计算,讨论了稳定安全系数一定的条件下边坡失效概率随土体抗剪强度指标变异水平的变化规律,分析了安全系数与边坡可靠指标的对应关系及其随土体抗剪强度指标变异水平的变化特征。研究表明：边坡可靠度受土体抗剪强度指标变异性影响显著,呈现出随土体抗剪强度指标变异水平提高而急剧减小的趋势;为保证边坡具有相同的可靠性,安全系数的取值应与土体抗剪强度指标的变异性相适应,据此提出了基于可靠指标和土体抗剪强度指标变异水平的安全系数取值原则及其对应的三参数函数关系式。     

水泥搅拌桩与土钉墙组合支护在软土基坑中的应用

结合福建典型的一个软土基坑中水泥搅拌桩与土钉墙组合支护的成功案例,探讨水泥搅拌桩与土钉墙组合支护在软土基坑中的作用机理及应用。研究结果表明,水泥搅拌桩与土钉墙组合支护技术可充分发挥基本型土钉墙以及水泥土搅拌桩的优点,克服单一使用的不足,结果可为类似软土基坑工程提供参考。