The influence of solution treatment temperature on microstructure and corrosion behavior of high temperature ageing in 25% Cr duplex stainless steel

In 25% Cr duplex stainless steels, the effect of prior-solution treatment temperature (STT) on the microstructure and corrosion behavior with ageing at 750 °C and 850 °C was investigated. The results revealed that the precipitation rate of σ-phase was fast in the early stage of ageing for 80 min, and then got slower with ageing time up to 330 min. The σ-phase formation was effectively suppressed by raising STT from 1060 °C to 1230 °C especially for ageing at 750 °C. Consequently, the corrosion rate of specimen was dependent on the amount of σ-phase precipitation, and was lowered due to higher STT, and more σ-phase precipitation can lead to the transition from metastable to stable pitting with ageing at 750 °C up to 330 min. Pitting occurred easily around coarse σ precipitates and caused selective dissolution in ferrite. The longer ageing time increased intergranular corrosion (IGC) susceptibility, whereas higher STT contributed to better resistance to IGC.     

Effect of heat treatment on the Nb distribution and corrosion resistance of Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe zirconium alloy

After being treated in different ways,Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe alloy specimens are exposed in 0.01mol/L LiOH aqueous solution at 350℃ under 16.8 MPa.The examination of microstructures and second phase particles (SPPs) of these specimens was carded out by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM).The specimens treated at 800℃ before the final cold roiling have a better corrosion resistance than those treated at 680℃,and the specimens treated at 500℃,after the final cold rolling,have a better corrosion resistance than those treated at 560℃.TEM examination shows that the SPPs existing in the 800℃/500℃ specimen,which has the best corrosion resistance,contains a lot of Nb dement,which results in the reduction of the niobium content in the a-Zr solid solution.     

Effect of ageing heat treatments on the microstructure and intergranular corrosion of powder metallurgy duplex stainless steels

The influence of ageing heat treatments (675 and 875 °C for 1.5 to 48 h) on the microstructure and intergranular corrosion resistance of sintered in nitrogen duplex stainless steels was investigated. The materials were obtained by sintering mixtures of austenitic AISI 316L and ferritic AISI 430L powders. Corrosion behaviour was evaluated by using electrochemical techniques. The beneficial effect of nitrogen on corrosion behaviour of solution annealed samples was established. During ageing, secondary phases were precipitated and the intergranular and transgranular corrosion resistance significantly decreased though repassivation was observed in specimens aged at 875 °C for times up to 8 h.     

Evolution of microstructure and hardness of AE42 alloy after heat treatments

The AE42 magnesium alloy was developed for high pressure die casting (HPDC) from low-aluminum magnesium alloys. In this alloy the rare earth (RE) elements were shown to increase creep resistance by forming Al_xRE_y intermetallics along the grain boundaries. The present work investigates the microstructure of squeeze cast AE42 magnesium alloy and evaluates its hardness before and after heat treatments. The change in hardness is discussed based on the microstructural observations. Some suggestions are given concerning future design of alloy compositions in order to improve high temperature creep properties even further. It is shown that the microstructure of the squeeze-cast AE42 alloy is stable at high temperature 450 °C. The subsequent solution and ageing treatments have a limited effect on the hardness. The weak age-hardening is attributed to the precipitation of small amount of Mg₁₇Al₁₂-phase with the use of about 0.7 wt.% aluminum. The heat treatment to achieve a maximum increase in the hardness is: solution treatment at 450 °C for 5–10 h followed by an ageing treatment at 190–220 °C for about 5 h.     

Preparation of TiAlN/ZrN and TiCrN/ZrN multilayers by RF magnetron sputtering

Titanium-based nitride coatings on cutting tools, press molds and dies can be used to prolong their life cycle because of their superior corrosion and oxidation resistance. TiAlN/ZrN and TiCrN/ZrN multilayer coatings were prepared by RF magnetron sputtering, and their microstructural evolution and corrosion resistance during heat treatment were investigated. The TiAlN/ZrN and TiCrN/ZrN multilayer coatings are degraded by heating up to 600 °C with the formation of oxides particles on the surface. During the heat treatment, the TiCrN/ZrN and TiAlN/ZrN multilayer coatings show the lowest corrosion current density and the highest polarization resistance at temperature range of 400–500 °C. Consequently, the TiAlN/ZrN and TiCrN/ZrN multilayer coatings show good corrosion resistance at temperature range of 400–500 °C during heating.     

The microstructures and corrosion of a 0.79C steel tempered in the range 100–700°C

The corrosion rate of a 0.79C steel in 0.1 M HCl at 50°C has been determined as a function of tempering in the range 100–700°C and related to the microstructure. It is shown that the corrosion rate is increased and approximately similar in the range 200–500°C, although three well-defined corrosion peaks occur. The first and third peaks are due to precipitation of ε-carbide and Widmanstätten Fe₃C respectively and the corrosion rate is consistent with the interfacial cementite/solution area controlling the process, but other factors may also be involved in the earlier stages of tempering.     

Warm forging of aluminium alloys: a new approach for time compression of the forging sequence

A new forging sequence, including a warm forging process, is proposed in order to obtain time compression in the production of forgings in heat treatable aluminium alloys. It offers the advantage of eliminating time consuming and expensive heat treatments. The proposed sequence consists of a solution treatment, followed by water quenching and then by warm forging that produces a fine precipitate structure characterised by high mechanical properties. The optimal warm forging condition was investigated by evaluating the strength and ductility values of the forgings by means of compression testing. The warm forging operation of the AA 6082 aluminium alloy, in the as-solutioned condition, at a temperature of about 240°C, after the natural ageing, provides mechanical properties that are almost coincident with those obtained after conventional forging sequences including an artificial ageing treatment. It was also observed that at such temperature the mechanical properties of the warm-forged parts are not significantly affected by the die speed.     

Development of ultrafine grained Al–Mg–Si alloy with enhanced strength and ductility

The microstructure and mechanical properties of a precipitation hardenable Al–Mg–Si alloy subjected to cryorolling (CR), short annealing and ageing treatments are reported in this present work. The pre-cryorolled solid solution treatment combined with post-CR short annealing (155 °C for 5 min) and then ageing treatment (125 °C for 12 h) has been found to be the optimum processing condition to obtain the ultrafine grained microstructure with substantial improvement of tensile strength (286 MPa) and good tensile ductility (14%) in the Al–Mg–Si alloy. The significant improvement of the mechanical properties of the cryorolled and peak aged 6063 Al alloys have been observed as compared to its bulk alloys in the peak-aged condition (T6).     

Preparation of TiAl3-Al composite coating by cold spraying

TiAl₃-Al coating was deposited on orthorhombic Ti₂AlNb alloy substrate by cold spraying with the mixture of pure Al and Ti as the feedstock powder at a fixed molar ratio of 3:1 when the spraying distance, gas temperature and gas pressure for the process were 10 mm, 250 °C and 1.8 MPa, respectively. The as-sprayed coating was then subjected to heat treatment at 630 °C in argon atmosphere for 5 h at a heating rate of 3 °C/min and an argon gas flow rate of 40 mL/min. The obtained TiAl₃-Al composite coating is about 212 μm with a density of 3.16 g/cm³ and a porosity of 14.69% in general. The microhardness and bonding strength for the composite coating are HV525 and 27.12 MPa.     

Pitting corrosion behaviour of PM austenitic stainless steels sintered in nitrogen-hydrogen atmosphere

PM 304L and 316L stainless steel have been compacted at 400, 600 and 800 MPa and sintered in vacuum and in nitrogen-hydrogen atmosphere. Postsintered heat treatments (annealing solution and ageing at 375, 675 and 875 °C) have been applied. Pitting corrosion resistance has been studied using anodic polarization measurements and the ferric chloride test. Anodic polarization curves reveal that densities and atmospheres are relevant on anodic behaviour. Pitting resistance is higher for PM 316L and for higher densities and vacuum as sintered atmosphere. Ageing heat treatments at medium and high temperatures are detrimental to passivity although susceptibility to pitting corrosion barely changes. But heat treatments at 375 °C even show certain improvement in pitting corrosion resistance. The results were correlated to the presence of precipitates and mainly to the lamellar constituent which appears in some samples sintered in nitrogen-hydrogen atmosphere. The role of nitrogen on the samples sintered under nitrogen-hydrogen atmosphere and its relation to the microstructural features was described.     

A study on hot corrosion behaviour of Ni–5Al coatings on Ni- and Fe-based superalloys in an aggressive environment at 900 °C

Ni–5Al coating was deposited on Ni- and Fe-based superalloys by high velocity oxy fuel (HVOF) process to enhance their high-temperature corrosion resistance. Hot corrosion studies were conducted on bare as well as HVOF-coated superalloy specimens after exposure to a molten salt environment at 900 °C under cyclic conditions. Each cycles consisted of 1 h heating in the silicon carbide tube furnace followed by 20 min cooling in air. Thermogravimetric technique was used to approximate the kinetics of corrosion. Techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM/EDAX) were used to characterize the corrosion products. The coatings and the oxide scale formed on the exposed surface were found to be intact with the superalloys. Superfer 800 with Ni–5Al coating has provided a good protection to the superalloys in the given molten salt environment.     

The temperature-dependence of the SO2-induced atmospheric corrosion of zinc; a laboratory study

The SO₂-induced atmospheric corrosion of zinc was studied at 4, 14, 22 and 30 °C and 95% RH. Each sample was exposed individually to synthetic atmospheres with careful control of SO₂ concentration (107 and 500 ppb), relative humidity and flow conditions. The initial reaction between SO₂ and zinc was studied in a time-resolved manner. Two-week exposures were performed to measure the corrosion rate and study the formation of corrosion products. Corrosion products were analysed by X-ray powder diffraction and ion chromatography. The corrosion rate was inversely dependent on temperature, the maximum rate being found at the lowest temperature. SO₂ deposition showed a similar trend with the highest deposition rate at 4 °C. At low temperature a thick film of ZnSO₄(aq) formed on the metal surface, whereas zinc hydroxysulphate (ZnSO₄ · 3Zn(OH)₂ · 4H₂O(s)) was the main corrosion product at 22 and 30 °C. The inverse temperature-dependence of the corrosion rate of zinc is proposed to be connected to the formation of sparingly soluble zinc hydroxy sulphate which slows down the deposition of SO₂ on the surface.     

Evaluation of Alloy 146, 279, 900, and 926 sensitization to intergranular corrosion by means of electrochemical methods and image analysis

Properties of stainless steels are affected by improper heat treatment. When that happens, the material can become sensitive to intergranular corrosion. This loss of properties is due to a microstructural changes. In this paper, electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation tests (single and double loop) were used to evaluate steel sensitization to intergranular corrosion. Four alloys, Alloy 146 (UNS 1.4331) and 279 (UNS 1.4429) (austenitic stainless steels), Alloy 900 (UNS 1.4462) (duplex stainless steel), and Alloy 926 (UNS N08926) (high alloyed stainless steel), were employed as working electrodes. The specimens were sensitized at different temperatures (600–825 °C) for periods of 1 or 2 h in argon atmosphere. Electrochemical tests were conducted using the electro-optical devices P-200002525 and P-200002526. These devices permit to obtain images of the electrode surface and electrochemical data simultaneously. In addition, these results were compared to standardized etching with oxalic acid (ASTM A-262), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). Two alloys showed sensitization to intergranular corrosion, Alloy 900 and Alloy 926 at 725 and 825 °C. Additionally, the single and double loop methods showed different passivation results. In the double loop test, the formation of a layer over the entire electrode surface was visible during the process of activation. The film remained until the end of experiment. However, in the single loop method no significant variations were observed on the electrode surface during passivation process, but if material is sensitized a film was formed during reactivation branch.     

Mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of low rigidity quaternary titanium alloy for biomedical applications

Electrochemical corrosion of Ti-35Nb-5Ta-7Zr alloy fabricated by arc melting and heat treatment process was studied in 0.9% NaCl at (37±1) °C. Phase and microstructure of the fabricated alloy were investigated using X-ray diffractometer and scanning electron microscope. Mechanical properties such as yield strength and elastic modulus of the alloy were determined by tensile test. Potentiodynamic polarization technique and impedance spectroscopy were employed to study the corrosion behavior. The results of the study were compared with those obtained for Ti-6Al-4V commercial alloy. The result of the study supports feasibility of Ti-35Nb-5Ta-7Zr alloy for implant applications.     

Homogenization treatment of high Nb containing TiAl alloys with as-cast and as-forged microstructures

The effect of heat treatment on the microstructure evolution of a high Nb containing TiAl alloy has been studied. The results indicate that β-segregation, β-segregation and S-segregation in the as-cast and as-forged alloys can be effectively eliminated at the temperature above Tα （1350-1400℃） for long holding time （12-24 h） and the full lamellar （FL） microstructure is gained. For the two alloys, the lamellar colony sizes are 120 μm and 2000 μm, respectively after heat treatment at 1400℃ for 12 h. Meanwhile, the sizes are 210 μm and 3000 μm, respectively at 1350℃ for 24 h. To get a fine homogenous microstructure, the primary as-cast alloy is first subjected to preheat treatment for eliminating the segregations. After the preheat treatment, the ailoy is processed by the multi-step canned forging to attain the microstructure with fine grain size.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of hot-pack rolled Ti-43Al-9V-Y alloy sheet

Ti-43Al-9V-Y alloy sheets with dimensions of 300 mm×100 mm×(1.5–2) mm were produced by hot-pack rolling. After rolling, the microstructure of Ti-43Al-9V-Y alloy sheet becomes near gamma(NG), which is comprised of γ+B2 phases. After heat treatment(HT) at 1 200−1 320 °C for 30 min followed by furnace cooling(FC), network shape structure of B2 phases in as-rolled microstructure is retained on the whole. Moreover, with increasing the HT temperature, precipitation of B2 phase lamellae in equiaxed γ grains is increased. Equiaxed γ grains transform partly to α₂/γ/B2 lamellar structure after the heat treatment at 1 320 °C for 30 min. Tensile test results show that room-temperature yield strength(YS) and ultimate tensile strength(UTS) of the as-rolled material are 509 and 612 MPa, respectively. With the test temperature increasing, the YS and UTS of the as-rolled are decreased, but the elongation is improved. After HT at 1 200 °C, both yield strength and fracture strength of Ti-43Al-9V-Y alloy sheet are the lowest. With HT temperature increasing, fracture strength is increased obviously, but yield strength of the sheet after HT at 1 280 °C is the highest, about 869 MPa.     

The influence of HCl gas in enhancing corrosion rates in Ni---Cr-base alloys and the implications for coal-fired gas turbines

Laboratory tests using specimens of a Ni-12Cr-6Al alloy showed that 500 vppm HCl(g) in air significantly increased corrosion due to Na₂SO₄(c) at 840°C and the effect became very pronounced with thermal cycling which caused oxide spalling. Addition of 1 % Y to the alloy greatly improved scale adhesion and reduced general corrosion, but intergranular penetration was detected with chlorides prominent. The results of microstructural and micro-analytical examination suggested that the mechanism of enhanced corrosion involved chloridation/oxidation and sulphidation/oxidation cycles and that chlorides have an important influence on the initiation and propagation. Since significant amounts of HCl gas will be present in future gas turbines using fuels from coal with a high level of chloride, the results have implications for this type of operation and these are discussed.     

Forming of aluminium alloy at temperatures just below melting point

In order to improve the mechanical properties of products, a forming process of a solid material at a temperature just below the melting point is proposed. The material is deformed at the semi-solid temperature due to the heat generation caused by plastic deformation. The tensile strength, elongation, hardness and toughness of the aluminium alloy (Al–7%Si–0.3%Mg) billet extruded at temperatures between 500 and 550 °C are compared with those of the billet extruded in the hot forming (450 °C) and the semi-solid (560 °C) temperatures. The billet temperature during forming is evaluated by the finite element simulation. The tensile strength and hardness of the billet extruded at 550 °C just below the solidus temperature are higher than those for a billet at 450 °C, and they are almost the same as those for a billet deformed at 560 °C in the semi-solid region. The elongation and toughness of the extruded billet at 550 °C are lower than those for a billet at 450 °C. The forming load at 550 °C is almost half of that at 450 °C. Cracking on the surface of the extruded billet occurs at a high punch speed. The calculated temperature when the solid billet is extruded in the semi-solid state agrees well with the experimental one at which the tensile and hardness are improved.     

Intergranular corrosion of Ti-stabilized 11 wt% Cr ferritic stainless steel for automotive exhaust systems

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) of type 409L ferritic stainless steel (FSS) was investigated. A free-exposure corrosion and a double loop electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation (DL-EPR) tests were conducted to examine IGC of the FSS. IGC occurred in the specimens aged at the temperature range of 400–600 °C that has the sensitization nose located around 600 °C. The critical I_r/I_a value was determined to be about 0.03 above which IGC occurred. Based on the analysis of the intergranular precipitates by an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and a transmission electron microscopy (TEM), IGC was induced by the Cr depletion zone formation due to Cr segregation around intergranular TiC.     

Non-contact ultrasonic measurements on steel at elevated temperatures

Non-contact ultrasonic measurements have been made on ferritic and austenitic steel specimens as a function of temperature from ambient to 1200°C, using a pulsed laser to generate and a reference beam laser interferometer to receive the ultrasound. The generation efficiency is found to remain surprisingly constant in both thermoelastic and ablation regimes over a wide temperature range. The sensitivity of the laser interferometer is also found to be temperature independent to a first approximation. However, it is typically reduced by 3–6 dB by convection currents above 900°C. Both the compression and shear velocities decrease with rising temperature. The former is measured with a precision of 1 in 10³, the latter rather less accurately with the present configuration. Compression wave attenuation increases steadily below 600°C in both materials. There is a peak in attenuation in ferritic steel between 600 and 750°C, which is absent in austenitic steel. It coincides with a steeper decrease in ultrasonic velocity and is believed to be due to the martensitic structural phase transformation.The attenuation rose more rapidly in both materials as 1000°C was approached. The material attenuation varied with heat treatment, a value in the range 1–1.5 dB cm⁻¹ being recorded at 1000°C. Complicated effects were observed during heat treatments at 1000°C and above. Both attenuation and forward scattering data were consistent with some annealing out of sub-structure, in addition to austenitic grain growth. Finally, there was evidence of lattice softening at the highest temperatures investigated. The data suggest that thicknesses of steel in the range 100–250 mm should be inspectable with a scaled-up system, depending upon various factors such as the presence of oxide scale, provided high power lasers are employed for generation and reception and an optimum bandwidth is chosen.