Overstocking reduces lying time in dairy cows

Our objective was to understand the effect of overstocking on the lying and standing behavior of dairy cattle. We manipulated freestall availability by providing 12, 11, 10, 9, or 8 freestalls to 12 cows (n = 4 groups, 12 cows/group), thus creating stocking levels of 100, 109, 120, 133, and 150%, respectively. Treatments were applied for a week at a time in a switchback design. Each group returned to the 100% stocking level after exposure to the other treatments. In addition to lying and standing behavior, we measured each cow's ability to displace others from the freestall to understand the interaction between social status and response to overstocking. When groups of cows had fewer stalls available, they spent less time lying down. There was no effect of overstocking on time spent standing with only the front legs in the stall. Instead, cows compensated for the reduced lying times by spending more time outside of the stall. When fewer stalls were available, animals were more likely to be displaced from stalls. The cow's ability to displace others from the stalls, however, did not explain the magnitude of their reduction in lying time when provided with fewer freestalls. Due to increased competition for stalls, cows lay down sooner at 150% than at the 100% level. Stall use was more uniform across time and across stalls within the pen when fewer freestalls were available. In conclusion, when cows had access to fewer freestalls, there was increased competition for stalls, increased time standing outside the stalls, and reduced lying time.     

Introducing heifers to freestall housing

Little work to date has assessed how dairy cattle respond when first introduced to freestall housing. In this study we carried out 2 experiments. The aim of experiment 1 was to assess the behavioral responses of naïve heifers to pens fitted with freestalls. Holstein heifers (n = 7 groups, each containing 3 heifers, 3 mo of age), with no previous experience with freestalls, were initially housed on a sawdust bedded pack and fed through a fixed feed barrier for at least 6 wk and then moved to a freestall pen fitted with a head-locking feed barrier. When kept on the bedded pack, the heifers’ lying time averaged 14.2 h/d. On the day heifers were moved to the freestall pen, lying times declined by 2.9 h, but recovered on the following days. The time spent lying down on the barn floor (i.e., outside the lying area) increased by 2.5 h on the day heifers were introduced to freestalls and remained higher during subsequent days. Heifers spent 46 min/d less time feeding on the day they were switched to the head-locking barrier, but recovered on the following days. In experiment 2 we assessed the behavioral responses of naïve heifers introduced to pens fitted with freestalls with or without a neck rail. Holstein heifers (n = 12 groups, each containing 2 heifers, 3 mo of age), with no previous experience with freestalls, were initially housed on a sawdust bedded pack and then moved to a freestall pen with or without neck rails. Heifers spent 4.2 h/d less time lying down in the 24 h following introduction into the freestall pen; the neck rail treatment had no effect on lying time but heifers spent more time standing with just their front 2 hooves in the stall when a neck rail was in the stall. In summary, lying and feeding behavior of naïve heifers is altered following introduction to new housing.     

Benchmarking of farms with automated milking systems in Canada and associations with milk production and quality

The objective of this study was to benchmark the herd-level housing and management strategies of automated milking system (AMS) farms across Canada and assess the associations of these herd-level housing factors and management practices with milk production and quality. Canadian AMS farms (n = 197; Western Canada: n = 50, Ontario: n = 77, Quebec: n = 59, Atlantic Canada: n = 11) were each visited once from April to September 2019, and details were collected related to barn design and herd management practices. Milk-recording data for the 6 mo before farm visits were collected. Farms averaged (± standard deviation) 110 ± 102 lactating cows, 2.4 ± 1.9 AMS units/farm, 47.5 ± 14.9 cows/AMS, 36.7 ± 5.0 kg/d of milk, 4.13 ± 0.34% fat, 3.40 ± 0.16% protein, and a herd-average somatic cell count of 186,400 ± 80,800 cells/mL. Farms mainly used freestall housing systems (92.5%), organic bedding substrates (73.6%), and free flow cow traffic systems (87.8%); farms predominantly milked Holsteins (90.4%). Multivariable regression models were used to associate herd-level housing factors and management practices with milk production and quality. At the herd level, feed push-up frequency (mean = 12.8 ± 8.3 times per day) and feed bunk space (mean = 64 ± 21.5 cm/cow) were positively associated with milk yield. Greater milk yield was associated with herds using inorganic (sand) versus organic bedding, milking Holsteins versus non-Holsteins, and using a form of mechanical ventilation versus natural ventilation alone. Milk fat and milk protein content were only associated with breed. Herds with lower somatic cell counts had more frequent alley cleaning (mean = 12.1 ± 7.5 times per day), wider lying alleys (mean = 304.5 ± 40.0 cm), and sand bedding. The results highlight the importance of using sand bedding, using mechanical ventilation, keeping feed pushed up, ensuring alleys are clean, and ensuring adequate space at the feed bunk for maintaining herd-level productivity and milk quality in farms with AMS.     

Associations of freestall design and cleanliness with cow lying behavior,hygiene, lameness,and risk of high somatic cell count

The objective of this study was to investigate associations of freestall design and cleanliness with cow lying behavior, hygiene, lameness, and risk of new high somatic cell count (SCC). Cows from 18 commercial freestall dairy herds (22 ± 15 cows/farm; mean ± SD) in Ontario, Canada, were enrolled in a longitudinal study. Four hundred focal cows that were <120 d in milk, had no mastitis treatment in the last 3 mo, and had an SCC <100,000 cells/mL at their most recent milk test were selected for the study. Data on SCC were collected through Dairy Herd Improvement Association milk testing (at ~5-wk intervals). Each farm was visited 5 ± 3 d (mean ± SD) after each milk test until 3 tests were completed (~105 d), for a total of 3 observation periods per cow. Elevated SCC was used as an indicator of subclinical mastitis. An incident of new high SCC was defined as a cow having SCC >200,000 cells/mL at the end of an observation period, when SCC was <100,000 cells/mL at the beginning of that period. Lying behavior was recorded for 6 d after each milk sampling, using electronic data loggers. Cows were scored during each period for lameness (5-point scale, with scores ≥3 = lame), body condition score (BCS; 5-point scale; 1 = thin to 5 = fat), and hygiene (4-point scale). Stall cleanliness was assessed during each period with a 1.20 × 1.65-m metal grid, containing 88 squares. The grid was centered between stall partitions of every tenth stall on each farm, and the squares containing visible urine or fecal matter (or both) were counted. Cow lying time averaged 10.9 ± 1.9 h/d. On average, cows with low BCS (≤2.5) spent 37 ± 16.6 min/d less time lying down than high-BCS cows (≥4.0). On average, cows tended to spend 36 ± 18.3 min/d more time lying down in deep-bedded versus mattress-based stalls. Mean proportion of soiled squares per stall was 20.1 ± 0.50%. Across farms, cow lying time decreased as the proportion of soiled squares per stall increased. A difference in daily lying time of ~80 more min/d was modeled for cows housed in barns with the cleanest stalls compared with those with the dirtiest stalls. Higher neck rail height [for every 1 SD (10 cm) increase] increased the odds (odds ratio = 1.5) of cows having a dirty upper leg–flank and udder. The odds of a cow having a dirty upper leg–flank, udder, and lower legs were 1.5, 2.0, and 1.9 times greater, respectively, for cows housed with dirtier stalls. Also, cows housed on farms with dirtier stalls had 1.3 times greater odds of being lame at the time of observation. Over the study period, 50 new high-SCC cases were detected, resulting in an incidence rate of 0.45 cases of new high SCC per cow-year at risk. No measured factors were detected to be associated with risk of a new high SCC. Overall, our results confirm that cows lie down longer in cleaner and more comfortable environments. Further, these results highlight the need for improved stall cleanliness to optimize lying time and potentially reduce lameness.     

Freestall maintenance: effects on lying behavior of dairy cattle

In a series of 3 experiments, we documented how sand-bedding depth and distribution changed within freestalls after new bedding was added and the effect of these changes on lying behavior. In experiment 1, we measured changes in bedding depth over a 10-d period at 43 points in 24 freestalls. Change in depth of sand was the greatest the day after new sand was added and decreased over time. Over time, the stall surface became concave, and the deepest part of the stall was at the center. Based on the results of experiment 1, we measured changes in lying behavior when groups of cows had access to freestalls with sand bedding that was 0, 3.5, 5.2, or 6.2 cm at the deepest point, below the curb, while other dimensions remained fixed. We found that daily lying time was 1.15 h shorter in stalls with the lowest levels of bedding compared with stalls filled with bedding. Indeed, for every 1-cm decrease in bedding, cows spent 11 min less time lying down during each 24-h period. In a third experiment, we imposed 4 treatments that reflected the variation in sand depth within stalls: 0, 6.2, 9.9, and 13.7 cm below the curb. Again, lying times reduced with decreasing bedding, such that cows using the stalls with the least amount of bedding (13.7 cm below curb) spent 2.33 h less time per day lying down than when housed with access to freestalls filled with sand (0 cm below curb).     

Effects of three types of free-stall surfaces on preferences and stall usage by dairy cows

One important criterion in choosing appropriate housing systems for dairy cattle is that the freestall provides a comfortable surface for the cow. This paper describes two experiments testing the effects of commonly used lying surfaces on stall preference and stall usage by Holstein cows. In both experiments, 12 cows were housed individually in separate pens. Each pen contained three free stalls with a different surface: deep-bedded sawdust, deep-bedded sand, and a geotextile mattress covered with 2 to 3 cm of sawdust. The animals were restricted to each surface in turn, in a random order for either 2 (Experiment 1) or 3 d (Experiment 2). Both before and after this restriction phase, the animals were allowed access to all three surfaces, and preference was determined, based on lying times. Of the 12 cows used in Experiment 1, 10 preferred sawdust before and nine after the restriction phase. During the restriction phase, average lying times and number of lying events during the restriction phase were significantly lower for the sand-bedded stalls (P < or = 0.05), and standing times were higher on mattresses (P < or = 0.05), compared with sawdust. Although these cows had some experience with all three surfaces during the experiment, they had been housed in sawdust-bedded stalls during their previous lactation. Cows used in Experiment 2 had spent their previous lactation in sand bedded stalls. In this experiment, about half the cows preferred sand and half sawdust, after the restriction phase. During the restriction phase of experiment, lying times and number of lying events were lower, and standing times were higher when the animals were restricted to the mattresses compared to either sand or sawdust (P < or = 0.05). These results indicate that (1) free stall surface can affect both stall preferences and stall usage, and (2) mattresses are less preferred.     

Time budgets of lactating dairy cattle in commercial freestall herds

The aim of this study was to examine the time budgets of 205 lactating dairy cows housed in 16 freestall barns in Wisconsin and to determine the relationships between components of the time budget and herd- and cow-level fixed effects using mixed models. Using continuous video surveillance, time lying in the stall, time standing in the stall, time standing in the alleys (including drinking), time feeding, and time milking (time out of the pen for milking and transit) during a 24-h period were measured for each cow. In addition, the number of lying bouts and the mean duration of each lying bout per 24-h period were determined. Time milking varied between cows from 0.5 to 6.0 h/d, with a mean ± standard deviation of 2.7 ± 1.1 h/d. Time milking was influenced significantly by pen stocking density, and time milking negatively affected time feeding, time lying, and time in the alley, but not time standing in the stall. Locomotion score, either directly or through an interaction with stall base type (a rubber crumb-filled mattress, MAT, or sand bedding, SAND), influenced pen activity. Lame cows spent less time feeding, less time in the alleys, and more time standing in the stalls in MAT herds, but not in SAND herds. The effect of lameness on lying time is complex and dependent on the time available for rest and differences in resting behavior observed between cows in MAT and SAND herds. In MAT herds, rest was characterized by a larger number of lying bouts of shorter duration than in SAND herds (mean = 14.4; confidence interval, CI: 12.4 to 16.5 vs. mean = 10.2; CI: 8.2 to 12.2 bouts per d, and mean = 1.0; CI: 0.9 to 1.1 vs. mean = 1.3, CI: 1.2 to 1.4 h bout duration for MAT and SAND herds, respectively). Lameness was associated with an increase in time standing in the stall and a reduction in the mean (CI) number of lying bouts per day from 13.2 (CI: 12.3 to 14.1) bouts/d for nonlame cows to 10.9 (CI: 9.30 to 12.8) bouts/d for moderately lame cows, and an overall reduction in lying time in MAT herds compared with SAND herds (11.5; CI: 10.0 to 13.0 vs. 12.7; CI: 11.0 to 14.3 h/d, respectively). These results show that time out of the pen milking, stall base type, and lameness significantly affect time budgets of cows housed in freestall facilities.     

Layouts for small freestall dairy barns: effect on milk yield for cows in different parities

Freestall housing for dairy cows has many different layouts and the space allocated for cows differs considerably. The objective of the present study was to investigate possible associations between barn layout and milk yield for different parities in small dairy freestall barns. Layouts of 204 Norwegian freestall barns constructed during the period from 1995 to 2005, and with a mean herd size of 42.7 ± 15.5 cows, were obtained and merged with milk yield data and calving interval, for each parity, from the Norwegian Milk Recording System (NDHRS). The milk yield data set contained 20,221 different lactations from these 204 herds. Both simple mixed models, including the different explanatory variables one by one together with parity, calving interval, and herd as random effect, and a final mixed model, including all significant explanatory variables, were created. According to variables tested in this study, the final mixed model estimates show that only primiparous cows benefit significantly from increased free space allocation. Milk yield was generally higher in automatic milking system barns compared with that in barns with milking parlors, but not for primiparous cows. Milk yield was higher for all parities for barns using separation pens in accordance with the recommendations. Barns with 2 or more dead-end alleys had lower milk yield compared with that from layouts without dead-end alleys. Primiparous cows benefited from water troughs located for easy access and responded with increased milk yield. In 10% of the barns, the water trough capacity was less than 47% of the recommendations, and all parities benefited from a water trough capacity higher than this level. Higher parities had increased milk yield when water trough capacity was more than 80%. Feed bunk space, number of freestall rows, and the location of freestalls had no significant effect on the milk yield. The present study showed that increased space and improved access to water is beneficial to primiparous cows, whereas layouts without dead-end alleys and improved water capacity is beneficial for all cows in freestall systems.     

Prolactin gene polymorphism in Nili‐Ravi buffaloes in relation to Sahiwal and Achai Cattle

In this study, prolactin gene polymorphism was investigated in Nili‐ Ravi buffaloes, Sahiwal and Achai cattle breeds, 100 per group, using polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR‐RFLP) technique. Only genotype GG was observed in the case of Nili‐Ravi buffaloes. In Sahiwal and Achai cattle, three genotypes were found, AA, AG and GG: the frequency of these genotypes were 72%, 18% and 10% in Sahiwal cattle and 44%, 34% and 22% in Achai cattle, respectively. The frequency of genotype AA was found to be higher in both cattle breeds. Results of chi‐square test at P < 0.05 revealed that animals of Achai cattle were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, whereas Sahiwal cattle were found to be deviating.     

Effects of alternative deep bedding options on dairy cow preference,lying behavior,cleanliness, and teat end contamination

Cows spend more time lying down when stalls are soft and dry, and bedding plays a key role in the comfort of the lying surface. The first objective of this study (experiment 1) was to compare cow preference for 2 types of alternative deep-bedding materials, switchgrass and switchgrass-lime, using wheat straw on a rubber mat as a control. Nine Holstein lactating cows were submitted in trios to a 3-choice preference test over 14 d (2 d of adaptation, 3 d of restriction to each stall, and 3 d of free access to all 3 stalls). Cows were housed individually in pens containing 3 stalls with different lying surfaces: (1) rubber mat with chopped wheat straw (WS); (2) deep-bedded switchgrass (SG); and (3) deep-bedded switchgrass, water, and lime mixture (SGL). The second objective (experiment 2) was to test, in freestall housing, the effects of these 3 types of bedding on lying behavior, cow cleanliness, and teat end bacterial contamination. Bedding treatments were compared in a 3 × 3 Latin square design using 24 cows split into groups of 8, with bedding materials being switched every 4 wk. Lying behavior was measured with data loggers in both studies. During experiment 1, cows chose to spend more time lying and had more frequent lying bouts on SG (9.4 h/d; 8.2 bouts/d) than on SGL (1.0 h/d; 0.9 bouts/d). They also spent more time standing and stood more frequently in stalls with SG (2.0 h/d; 10.1 bouts/d) than in those with SGL (0.6 h/d; 2.6 bouts/d), and stood longer in stalls with SG than with WS (0.6 h/d). In experiment 2, the total lying time, frequency of lying bouts, and mean lying bout duration were, on average, 9.7 ± 1.03 h/d, 8.2 ± 0.93 bouts/d, and 1.2 ± 0.06 h/bout, respectively, and did not differ between treatments. No treatment effects were found for cow cleanliness scores. Bedding dry matter was highest for SG (74.1%), lowest for SGL (63.5%), and intermediate for WS (68.6%) [standard error of the mean (SEM) = 1.57%]. This may explain the higher teat end count of coliforms for cows on SGL (0.92 log₁₀ cfu/g) compared with WS (0.13 log₁₀ cfu/g) (SEM = 0.144 log₁₀ cfu/g). In conclusion, cows preferred the deep-bedded switchgrass surface over the other 2 surfaces, and deep-bedded switchgrass appears to be a suitable bedding alternative for dairy cows.     

Dairy cow trade-off preference for 2 different lying qualities: Lying surface and lying space

Lying down is an important behavior for cows, contributing to their health and welfare. With dairy cows being housed for increasingly longer periods, if not year-round, it is important to ensure that dairy cow lying comfort is not compromised when they are housed. The aim of this study was to assess cow preference for 2 different qualities of lying area that appear to be important to cows—surface type and an open lying space—to better understand how to optimize lying comfort for cows when housed. Twenty-four Holstein dairy cows were used during the study, which took place in Scotland from July to November 2018. The study consisted of 6 experimental periods, each lasting a total of 21 d. Cows were tested 4 at a time and individually housed in their own test pen. Each pen had 3 lying surfaces: sand, mattress, and straw (2.4 m × 2.4 m each) with a freestall in the middle of each, which could be removed. Cows were given access to one surface at a time (training period) with a freestall for 2 d, and then given a choice of all 3 surfaces for 2 d. When given the choice with freestalls in position, cows spent, on average, the largest amount of their lying time on straw (46.6 ± 7.8%) followed by mattress (44.3 ± 12.4%). Freestalls were then removed and the training and choice phase was repeated on the following day, with cows, on average, spending the most time lying on straw (64.4 ± 7.2%). Finally, a freestall was refitted onto each cow's most preferred surface and the cows were given a choice between lying on their most preferred surface with a freestall (P1 + freestall) or on their second or third preferred surface without a freestall (P2 + open and P3 + open, respectively) for 3 d. During this final trade-off stage, of the 19 cows for which data were available, 14 cows chose to give up the opportunity to lie down on their most preferred surface to have more space on P2 + open and P3 + open, 3 cows chose to lie down on P1 + freestall, and 2 cows made no clear choice. Overall, cows spent the largest amount of their total lying time on their second most preferred surface as an open lying space (65.7 ± 6.9%) compared with their preferred surface with a freestall (20.5 ± 5.9%) and their third preferred surface as an open lying space (13.8 ± 3.7%). The results indicate that when lying down, these dairy cows value an open lying space more than the lying surface.     

Factors affecting stall use for different freestall bases

The objective of this study was to compare stall use (stall occupancy and cow position) by barn side for factors affecting stall use. A closed circuit television system recorded stall use four times per day for a 9-mo period starting May 9, 2001. Six factors were analyzed: stall base, distance to water, stall location within stall base section, stall location within barn, inside barn temperature, and length of time cows were exposed to stall bases. Two barn sides with different stocking densities were analyzed: low (66%), with cows milked by robotic milker; and high (100%), with cows milked 2X in parlor. Six stall base types were tested: two mattresses, a waterbed, a rubber mat, concrete, and sand (high side only). The base types were grouped 3 to 7 stalls/section and randomly placed in each row. Cows spent more time in mattress-based stalls, but the highest percentage lying was in sand-based stalls. The following significant stall occupancy percentages were found: sand had the highest percentage of cows lying on the high stocking density side (69%), followed by mattress type 1 (65%) > mattress type 2 (57%) > waterbed (45%) > rubber mat (33%) > concrete (23%). Mattress type 1 had the highest percentage stalls occupied (88%), followed by mattress type 2 (84%) > sand (79%) > soft rubber mat (65%) > waterbed (62%) > concrete (39%). On the low stocking rate side, mattress type 1 had the highest percentage cows lying (45%) and occupied (59.6%), followed by mattress type 2 > waterbed > soft rubber mat > concrete. Cow lying and stalls occupied percentages were highest for stalls 1) not at the end of a section, and 2) on the outside row, and varied by base type for time cows exposed to stalls and inside barn temperature. Lying and occupied percentages were different for different mattress types. The percentage of stalls with cows standing was higher for mat and mattress-based stalls. Results show mattress type 1 and sand to be superior and rubber mats and concrete inferior stall bases.     

Flexible and fixed partitions in freestalls--effects on lying behavior and cow preference

The objective was to investigate the effect of stall partition design on total lying time, lying position, and stall cleanliness, and to evaluate the preferences of cows regarding stalls with traditional fixed stall dividers or flexible stall dividers. Using a crossover design, 16 nonlactating dairy cows were housed singly for 9 d in pens with 2 freestalls, 1 with fixed cantilever dividers and 1 with flexible dividers. The cows were first given access to one stall type, and then to the other type of stall, and finally to both in a preference test. Type of stall divider did not influence lying behavior (13.5 h for fixed versus 14.0 h for flexible, ± 0.4 h), lying positions, or stall cleanliness; however, the cows showed a preference for lying in the flexible stalls (65.2 for flexible vs. 34.8 for fixed ± 8.2%). This indicated that cows are able to distinguish between type of stall divider and that it is important to them; however, it is not clear if the reason for this is the shape or the properties of the dividers. We concluded that cattle chose a flexible stall divider over a fixed one, but the long-term consequences of this preference are not clear, because no obvious changes in stall usage were observed when cows were only given access to one type of divider.     

Free-stall dimensions: effects on preference and stall usage

In 2 experiments, free-stall dimensions were examined to determine how they affected stall preference, usage, cleanliness, and milk production in Holstein dairy cattle. In experiment 1, stall width (112 or 132 cm) and stall length (229 and 274 cm from curb to wall) were compared in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of stall treatments using 15 individually housed, non-lactating animals. Cows showed no clear preference for stall size as measured by lying time. When animals had no choice between stalls, average lying time was higher in the wide stalls than in the narrow stalls (10.8 vs. 9.6+/-0.3 h/24 h). Both length and width affected time spent standing with only the front hooves in the stall; total stall area is best explained by the variation associated with this behavior. In experiment 2, 27 lactating dairy cattle were alternately housed with access to stalls of 106, 116, or 126 cm in width using a cross-over design with exposure to each treatment lasting 3 wk. Animals spent an additional 42 min/24 h lying in stalls measuring 126 cm in width compared with stalls with only 106 cm between partitions. Free-stall width influenced the time spent standing with the front 2 hooves in the stall; animals averaged 58 min/24 h in the widest stalls and 85 min/24 h in the narrowest stalls. The amount of time spent standing with all 4 hooves in the stall tended to be longer in wider stalls, and these stalls were also most likely to become soiled with feces. Stall width did not affect the number of lying events or milk production. In conclusion, animals spent more time lying down, and less time was spent standing with only the front hooves in larger stalls, but larger stalls were also more likely to become soiled.     

Housing tiestall dairy cows in deep-bedded pens during an 8-week dry period: Effects on lying time,lying postures,and rising and lying-down behaviors

Dairy cow lying behavior is useful in determining the cow's level of welfare, as well as in determining how her environment may affect her comfort and ease of movement. In tiestall systems, cows usually remain in a stall for the duration of their lactation. The dry period offers a unique opportunity to provide alternative housing to the cow with minimal effects on farm housing and management. Our objective was to determine whether housing tiestall cows in deep-bedded pens over an 8-wk dry period altered lying time, lying and rising ability, or lying postures. At dry-off, 20 cows, paired by parity and calving date, were randomly assigned to a deep-bedded loose pen (LP) or a tiestall (TS). Leg-mounted pedometers measured lying time. Rising and lying ability were measured using 6 events of rising and lying from 24-h video recordings taken once a week per cow. Sequenced images (1/min) from the 24-h recordings were used to document lying postures and locations for each cow. Data were analyzed for the early (first week of dry-off), mid, and late (week before calving) terms of the dry period. Lying time did not differ between LP and TS but was numerically higher for LP than TS cows (14.4 vs. 13.0 h/d, respectively). Contact with stall or pen confines when lying down was 5 times higher in TS than LP. The increased contact, coupled with a higher occurrence of hindquarter shifting in the late term, led to higher overall abnormal lying behaviors in TS. Contact with the stall upon rising increased in the late term for TS cows. Cows housed in loose pens also exhibited greater variation in hind-leg postures, keeping legs tucked 20% less often in favor of alternative postures. Stall hardware (e.g., tie rail, dividers) may have affected the ease of transition between lying and standing, leading to higher levels of contact with the stall. Loose-pen cows are able to assume more postures than TS cows when provided more space, possibly allowing them to orient themselves in ways that provide greater comfort. Lying surface in the deep-bedded loose pen may ease the cow's lying-down and rising movements and lead to the higher lying time found with LP cows. Overall, aspects of the stall largely contributed to differences in lying behaviors, warranting further study into whether freestall systems would yield similar outcomes. Improving our concept of ease of movement related to lying and quality of rest in dairy cows, through evaluating lying behaviors in different housing systems, allows for better recommendations on viable alternative housing options.     

Individual and environmental factors associated with defecation while lying down in dairy cows

Cows typically defecate while standing. Freestalls are designed to position standing cows such that their feces fall into the alley. Cows sometimes defecate while lying down, increasing the risk that feces contaminate the stall surface. We conducted 2 studies investigating cow-level and environmental factors associated with defecating while recumbent. In experiment 1, we hypothesized that conditions making it more difficult for cows to stand up (including greater age, high body weight, pregnancy, and lameness) would increase the risk of this behavior. We followed 92 cows for 12 d, scanning stalls 5 times/d using live observation. Almost half (48%) of all cows defecated while recumbent at least once; cows that spent more time lying down and that were earlier in gestation were at highest risk. Weight, parity, age, and lameness were not associated with this behavior. In experiment 2, we tested how overstocking influenced the occurrence of defecating while recumbent. We predicted overstocking would increase the occurrence of this behavior, especially when cows were in stalls at more preferred locations. We recorded stall occupancy, displacement attempts, and defecating while recumbent in 4 groups of 36 cows tested at both 100% and 150% lying stall stocking densities for 2 nights each using a crossover design. Overstocking resulted in higher stall use and more displacements, but less lying and fewer perching events. We did not detect any relationship between use of specific stalls or competition and defecating while recumbent. Most recorded displacements were associated with perching. Increased time perching increased the likelihood of defecating while recumbent, perhaps because perching cows were less dominant or more reluctant to stand up once lying down in the stall. Overstocking did not increase defecating while recumbent, likely because cows spent less time lying down. Together, these results indicate that defecating while recumbent can be common, and points to some of the cow-level factors associated with this behavior.     

Effects of pasture on lameness in dairy cows

This study tested whether providing cows a 4-wk period on pasture would improve gait and change lying behavior. Eighteen groups, each of 4 lactating Holstein cows initially housed in a freestall barn, were assigned to either continued housing in the same freestall barn, or moved to pasture to provide changes in both physical environment and diet. To assess lameness, gait scores (1 to 5) were recorded weekly for 4 wk. Gait improved by an average of 0.22 units/wk for those cows kept on pasture. We also recorded 4 specific gait attributes (head bob, back arch, tracking up, and reluctance to bear weight evenly on all 4 hooves), and found that the latter 2 attributes also improved during the pasture period. Improved gait for cows on pasture was not because of increased lying times. Cows on pasture actually spent less time lying down than cows kept indoors (10.9 vs. 12.3 h/d), although this lying time was spread over a larger number of bouts (15.3 vs. 12.2 bouts). Cows housed on pasture also lost more weight and produced less milk relative to cows in freestalls, likely because of reduced nutrient intake. These results indicate that a period on pasture can be used to help lame cattle recover probably because pasture provides a more comfortable surface upon which cows stand, helping them to recover from hoof and leg injuries.     

Brisket boards reduce freestall use

We examined how the presence of a brisket board influenced cow preference, stall use, and position within the stall. When given a choice between stalls with or without a brisket board, 15 nonlactating cows spent 68% of their time lying in the stalls without a brisket board, indicating that they preferred this option. When 13 cows had access to either stalls with a brisket board or ones without, they spent, on average, 1.2 h/d more time lying down in stalls without a brisket board. Resting cows positioned themselves relatively forward in the stalls in 98 ± 5% (mean ± SE) of lying bouts when the brisket board was absent, compared with 67 ± 5% of bouts when the board was present. Longer cows were more likely than shorter cows to move forward in the stalls without a brisket board. Cows also had longer lying bouts in stalls without the brisket board (absent: 1.7 ± 0.08; present: 1.5 ± 0.08 h/bout). Although it seems likely that the brisket board helps keep stalls clean by positioning cows closer to the curb, our results indicate that brisket boards also make stalls less comfortable for cows. Stall features designed to reduce stall maintenance may compromise cow comfort. We suggest that new approaches to cow housing are now required.     

Making tiestalls more comfortable: III. Providing additional lateral space to improve the resting capacity and comfort of dairy cows

Dairy cows housed in tiestalls are restricted to one space; therefore, this space should be designed to accommodate all the activities cows need to perform. Lying is a very important behavior for dairy cows as well as a critical measure in the assessment of stall designs, to ensure that the cows' needs for resting space are met. The objective of this study was to determine if increasing tiestall width alters the lying behavior of lactating dairy cows. Two treatments were compared: the current recommendation (139 cm) and a double stall (284 cm). Sixteen cows were blocked by parity and lactation stage, then randomly allocated to a treatment and a stall within 1 of 2 rows in the research barn, for 6 wk. The average stall length was 188 cm. Leg-mounted accelerometers were used to record lying behaviors. Cows were video-recorded 24 h/wk using surveillance cameras positioned above the stalls. Video data from wk 1, 3, and 6 were extracted at a rate of 1 image/min and analyzed by a trained observer to assess the position and the location of the cow's body, head, and limbs during the lying hours. Lying behaviors and frequency of each position and location were analyzed in SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) using a mixed model in which treatment, block, and week were included as fixed factors, and cow and row as random factors. Multiple comparisons were adjusted using the Scheffé method. Results indicate that cows in double stalls fully extended their hindlimbs more often than single stall cows (21.7 vs. 7.6% of lying time). Cows in double stalls also intruded in the neighboring stalls with their hindlimbs less often (1.3 vs. 14.7% of lying time), instead positioning them inside their own stall more often (92.7 vs. 84.6% of lying time). Use of the second stall in the double stall group totaled 11.6, 5.1, 33.8, and 18.0% of lying time, respectively, for the head, front legs, hind legs, and body. Total lying time was not statistically different between double (716 min/d) and single stall (671 min/d) groups. Contacts with stall hardware during lying-down movements were also less frequent in double stalls (43.1 vs. 77.1% of lying events) compared with single stalls. These results suggest that dairy cows housed in double stalls modified their resting habits and used the extra space made available to them. Increasing stall width beyond the current recommendation is likely to benefit the cows by improving their ability to rest.     

Cow preference and usage of free stalls compared with an open pack area

Free-stall housing systems are designed to provide a comfortable and hygienic lying area, but some aspects of stall design may restrict usage by cows. The aim of this study was to compare free-stall housing with a comparable lying area (open pack) without stall partitions. We predicted that cows would spend more time lying down and standing in the bedded area when provided access to an open pack than when in free stalls. We also predicted that cows would spend less time standing outside of the lying area and less time perching with the front 2 hooves in the lying area when using the open pack. Groups (n = 8) of 12 cows each were provided access to either the open pack or stalls. After a 7-d adaptation period, each group was tested sequentially in the 2 treatments for 3 d each. This no-choice phase was followed by an 8-d choice phase during which cows had simultaneous access to both treatments. During the no-choice phase, cows spent more time lying down (13.03 ± 0.24 vs. 12.48 ± 0.24 h/d) and standing with all 4 hooves in the bedded area (0.96 ± 0.12 vs. 0.41 ± 0.12 h/d) of the open pack than in the stalls. During the choice phase, cows spent more time lying down (7.20 ± 0.29 vs. 5.86 ± 0.29 h/d) and standing with all 4 hooves in the bedded area (0.58 ± 0.07 vs. 0.12 ± 0.07 h/d) of the open pack than in the stalls. In both the no-choice (1.66 ± 0.24 vs. 0.55 ± 0.24 h/d) and choice (0.55 ± 0.07 vs. 0.29 ± 0.07 h/d) phases, cows spent more time standing with just 2 hooves in the stalls than in the open pack. In conclusion, cows spent more time lying and standing with all 4 hooves in the bedded open pack than in the stalls. Additionally, cows spent more time standing in the alley and standing with just the front 2 hooves on the bedding in the stalls than in the bedded open pack; increased standing time on wet concrete is a known risk factor for lameness.