Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children.

Two studies, 1 longitudinal and 1 cross-sectional, demonstrate that for young elementary school children, academic intrinsic motivation is a reliable, valid, and significant construct. It was positively related to achievement, IQ, and perception of competence, and inversely related to anxiety. Academic intrinsic motivation at age 9 was significantly predicted by motivation measured 1 and 2 years earlier, above and beyond the contribution of IQ and achievement. Children with higher academic intrinsic motivation at ages 7 and 8 were more likely to show higher motivation at age 9. Whereas young children could reliably distinguish between subject areas of academic intrinsic motivation, only math motivation showed consistently specific relations to other math criteria. Findings are discussed with regard to developmental theories of intrinsic motivation and the significance of academic intrinsic motivation for children's education. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-handicapping and intrinsic motivation: Buffering intrinsic motivation from the threat of failure.

High and low self-handicappers (as measured by E. E. Jones & F. Rhodewalt's [1982] Self-Handicapping Scale) were asked to play a game of pinball (in a competitive or noncompetitive setting) after they had practiced as much as they wanted on a related task (thus, not practicing could have served as a self-handicap). High self-handicappers who did not practice much became more involved in the game and subsequently reported enjoying the game more than high self-handicappers who practiced a lot. Furthermore, the effects on enjoyment were mediated by task involvement, suggesting that the protection afforded by self-handicapping affects intrinsic motivation by allowing the individual to become absorbed in the activity instead of focusing on performance concerns. Individuals who self-handicap may be providing themselves with the "breathing room" they need to become absorbed in an activity and to experience the activity as enjoyable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Surveillant intentions and intrinsic motivation.

Alternative predictions about the influence of surveillance on intrinsic motivation were derived from cognitive evaluation and objective self-awareness theories. Adult Ss in Exp 1 were assigned to surveillance conditions that implicated either controlling or noncontrolling surveillant intentions or to no-surveillance conditions. A behavioral measure revealed greater intrinsic motivation in the noncontrolling intention and no-surveillance conditions than in the controlling intention conditions (ps?     

Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation.

Two experiments investigated the effects of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation for an enjoyable pinball game. Exp 1 manipulated Ss' performance (demonstrating ability) and mastery (developing one's skills) achievement goals and contrasted them with a neutral control group. Exp 2 replicated Exp 1 and extended it by additionally providing (or not) Ss with positive, goal-relevant feedback. Results were consistent across studies, indicating that individual differences in achievement orientation moderated the influence of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation. Specifically, performance goals enhanced intrinsic motivation for achievement-oriented individuals, whereas mastery goals enhanced interest for those low in achievement orientation. The results were discussed in the context of J. M. Harackiewicz and C. Sansone's (1991) model of intrinsic motivation processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-task generalization of intrinsic motivation effects.

Examined whether prior autonomy-supporting (AS) and externally controlling (EC) experiences can affect reactions to new activities (NAs). In Exp 1, 152 university students received self-determining (i.e., AS) pretreatment experience, and EC pretreatment experience, or no pretreatment experience with an initial activity and then received an expected task-contingent reward or an unexpected reward after engaging in an NA. In Exp 2, 53 university students received high competency feedback (i.e., AS) or average competency feedback following performance of an initial activity, and then received an expected or unexpected reward after engaging in an NA. Initial AS experiences produced relatively lower intrinsic motivation to engage in the NAs. Ss' experiences with prior activities interacted with subsequent reward variations to affect their reactions to NAs. Prior AS experienced averted negative motivation effects of expected rewards on NAs, whereas prior EC experienced suppressed subsequent intrinsic motivation. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Praise, involvement, and intrinsic motivation.

In this experiment, we examined the relation between content of praise, type of involvement, and intrinsic motivation. College students were introduced to a hidden-figure task in either an ego-involving (i.e., testlike) or task-involving (i.e., gamelike) manner and then received either ability-focused, effort-focused, or no praise for their performance. As predicted, task involvement increased intrinsic motivation relative to ego involvement, and ability praise increased intrinsic motivation relative to effort praise or no praise. Furthermore, praise and involvement interacted so that subjects who received effort praise were relatively more intrinsically motivated under task-involving than ego-involving conditions, whereas those who received ability praise were relatively more motivated under ego-involving than task-involving conditions. Also, the higher levels of intrinsic motivation were accompanied by a choice of higher level of challenge and better performance at a related but more complex task. Finally, a significant Sex?×?Praise interaction was found, reflecting that women tended to display more intrinsic motivation in the no-praise condition than in the two praise conditions, whereas men showed the reverse pattern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reality, intrinsic motivation, and creativity.

Comments on R. Eisenberger and J. Cameron's (see record 1996-06440-007) discussion on the impact of reward on creativity. The authors argue that Eisenberger and Cameron overlooked or failed to adequately explain several demonstrations of lower creativity on rewarded activities as compared with nonrewarded activities. Moreover, the evidence they provided of increased creativity under reward is more informative about relatively simple human behaviors than about actual creative performance. The authors believe that it is erroneous and misleading to conclude, as do Eisenberger and Cameron, that the detrimental effects of reward occur under limited conditions that are easily avoided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychometric properties of two measures of intrinsic motivation

Howard's Maze Test and Maw and Maw's Which-to-Discuss Test were individually administered to 25 educable mentally retarded junior high school students. Although the internal consistency of both tests was acceptably high (.81 to .90, respectively), scores were essentially unrelated to a host of demographic and other types of variables. Moreover, the correlation between scores on the two instruments was only -.06. It was suggested that the tests might better be described as measures of diversive curiosity and specific curiosity, respectively, than as measures of intrinsic motivation.     

Predictive validity of an injury score among high school basketball players

A number of strategies have been investigated in an attempt to identify those individuals most likely to be injured during participation in sports activity. One such strategy identified in the literature involved computing an "injury score" via a logistic regression equation using measures of structural symmetry to predict the likelihood of athletic injury. The purpose of this study was to investigate the predictive value of the injury score among high school basketball players. Following the establishment of reliability of measures, injury scores were calculated for 62 high school basketball players (34 females, 28 males) before the start of the season. Lower extremity injuries sustained while playing basketball were recorded throughout the season. The predictive value of the injury score equation was determined by calculating sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values. The sensitivity and specificity were calculated to be 16.7% and 66.1%, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values were calculated to be 5.90% and 88.1%, respectively. These results indicate that the injury prediction score investigated was not a valid means of predicting injury in high school basketball players. Limitations, possible implications of these findings, and ideas for future related research are presented.     

Proximal versus distal goal setting and intrinsic motivation.

A. Bandura and D. H. Schunk (see record 1982-07527-001) demonstrated that proximal goal setting can develop self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation from previously low levels. The present study examined the effect of goal proximity on intrinsic motivation when initial task interest was high. 66 female undergraduates were assigned either proximal or distal performance goals, or were not provided with goals, prior to completing a series of enjoyable word puzzles. Distal goal setting enhanced subsequent intrinsic motivation relative to conditions involving proximal goals or no goals. Proximal goal setting, however, produced more positive goal attainment expectations over the course of task engagement and enhanced final perceptions of performance quality to a lesser degree. Findings are interpreted according to E. L. Deci's (1975) cognitive evaluation theory of intrinsic motivation. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of cooperative and individualistic reward on intrinsic motivation

The effects of cooperative versus individualistic reward on students' intrinsic motivation were investigated. The controlling aspects of extrinsic reward may be heightened or produce greater ego threat in the individualistic situation when compared with a group situation. We predicted that students in the cooperative social situation would show higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Fifth-grade students from existing cooperative groups were assigned randomly to receive a tangible reward based on either cooperative or individualistic achievement for completing pattern block designs. Cooperation affected intrinsic motivation positively. Students in the cooperative dyad solved the block designs more quickly, interacted positively, and viewed the task as easier than did those in the individualistic situation, and they reported that their peers were helpful. There was little evidence that the controlling functions of reward or ego-threat were factors in producing the outcome. Some evidence supporting the importance of the social nature of cooperation was provided.     

Equity and intrinsic motivation: The role of choice.

Research on the effects of pay on productivity and intrinsic motivation has yielded seemingly contradictory results. The "equity" literature has repeatedly found that increasing pay increases productivity (and presumably, intrinsic motivation), whereas the "insufficient/oversufficient justification" literature has found that increasing pay decreases intrinsic motivation (hence, presumably, productivity). It was hypothesized that the choice variable mediates these results. Specifically, under low choice, high pay should lead to reduced productivity or intrinsic motivation, whereas under high choice, high pay should lead to reduced productivity or intrinsic motivation. A pilot study and a subsequent experiment, both using female undergraduates, examined the effect of pay and choice on productivity or intrinsic motivation. Both studies supported these predictions. The results are discussed with regard to problems in determining the level of reward to be offered for task performance, since providing inadequate rewards may sometimes decrease, and other times increase, intrinsic motivation. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of functional knee braces on speed in collegiate basketball players

Knee braces are worn by many athletes following injury. The purpose of this study was to determine whether two functional knee braces (noncustom design) significantly affected straight line and successive turning trial running times in noninjured collegiate basketball players. Twenty-five coed basketball players completed 2 days of running trials. Subjects ran three full lengths of a basketball court and 10 lengths between the baseline and the foul line first without wearing a brace, then wearing either a DonJoy GoldPoint brace or an Omni OS-5 brace, and finally wearing the other brace. The results indicated no significant difference (p < .05) in straight line or successive turning running times when the two braces were compared with the nonbraced condition and when the two braces were compared with each other. The results implied that speed was not significantly affected by a functional knee brace in noninjured collegiate basketball players.     

Effects of extrinsic financial rewards on intrinsic motivation.

Utilized a chess-problem task to evaluate E. L. Deci's hypothesis that contingent extrinsic rewards will decrease intrinsic motivation. After observing the amount of time 28 undergraduates spent working on the task in a free period, one group was offered a financial incentive for performing the task while another group was not. One week later, Ss were again observed in a free period and then performed the task again with no financial incentive. Results support the hypothesis, and data that rule out specific methodological criticisms of Deci's paradigm are presented. Findings are discussed in terms of whether extrinsic rewards and motivation interact with intrinsic motivation. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Undermining intrinsic moral motivation: External reward and self-presentation.

Investigated whether paying people for helping undermines an important source of intrinsic motivation to help—the internalized sense of moral obligation. Self-perception theory suggests that individuals paid to help will infer that they have engaged in this behavior for the reward and not for reasons intrinsic to helping. Previous research has failed to find an undermining of intrinsic motivation that could be traced to the perception that helping was overjustified. In the present study, it was hypothesized that people's desire to appear morally motivated may have prevented the detection of overjustification effects. A bogus pipeline procedure was used to convince Ss that their true attitudes could be tapped, so that they would refrain from socially desirable but inaccurate self-presentation. The design consisted of 2 measurement conditions—bogus pipeline and pencil-and-paper—crossed with 3 activity conditions in which the 60 undergraduate Ss recorded a text either to help a blind student for pay or with no reward or to provide material for a study of vocal intonations. As predicted, payment for help undermined the sense of moral obligation only in the bogus pipeline condition. Unpaid helpers in this condition showed enhanced intrinsic motivation. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of the rewarder and intrinsic motivation of the rewardee.

Considered the relationship between teacher characteristics and the intrinsic motivation and self-esteem of 889 children in Grades 4–6. The research evolved out of E. L. Deci's (1971, 1972, 1975) cognitive evaluation theory, which distinguishes between the controlling and informational aspects of rewards. It was hypothesized that Ss whose teachers were oriented toward controlling them would be less intrinsically motivated and have lower self-esteem than Ss whose teachers were oriented toward supporting autonomy. It was reasoned that control-oriented teachers would tend to use rewards controllingly, whereas autonomy-oriented teachers would tend to use rewards informationally. Data support the hypothesis and also indicate that Ss perceived autonomy-oriented teachers as facilitating personal responsibility and internal control more than control-oriented teachers. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Advances in intrinsic motivation and aesthetics.

Reviews the book, Advances in Intrinsic Motivation and Aesthetics edited by Hy I. Day (1981). This collection of 20 original contributions is a fitting tribute to the late Daniel E. Berlyne. The breadth of topics covered gives one some idea of the scope of Berlyne's impact. This edited volume also guides the reader to retrace the path that bears Berlyne's footprints. It turns out to be an intrinsically motivating and rewarding journey. One is often surprised by unexpected turns, aroused by changing terrains, and curious about what lies ahead, but all the time one senses where Berlyne is heading. The destination is always clearly defined, even if the exploration seems diverse and undirected. The traveller may have the feeling of going through a complex maze of winding paths and conflicting signs, but there is a hidden pattern of simplicity detectable to an inquisitive mind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)