The incidence of fuel taxation in India

Fuel taxes have returned to centre stage as a potential policy instrument for greenhouse gas abatement. On the basis of some studies in developed countries, critics have complained that a fuel tax would be regressive. This paper uses data from a representative household survey covering more than 124 thousand Indian households to examine this claim. It finds that a fuel tax would be progressive as would a carbon tax. Using an input–output approach, it is found that the progressivity results holds good even when one considers indirect consumption of fuel through its use as an intermediate input. Sensitivity checks allowing for differing price elasticities of demand between rich and poor confirm this result for most of fuels. A tax on kerosene is the only fuel tax that is regressive in all situations.     

Analyzing public awareness and acceptance of alternative fuel vehicles in China: The case of EV

The aim of this paper is to analyze consumers' awareness towards electric vehicle (EV) and examine the factors that are most likely to affect consumers' choice for EV in China. A comprehensive questionnaire survey has been conducted with 299 respondents from various driving schools in Nanjing. Three binary logistic regression models were used to determine the factors that contribute to consumers' acceptance of EVs, their purchase time and their purchase price. The results suggest that:     

Analyzing light fuel demand elasticities in Brazil using cointegration techniques

This study is intended to assess the sensitivity of demand for light fuels in Brazil to changes in prices and income, considering the unique characteristics of the Brazilian fleet, the lack of convergence across studies available for the domestic market and its importance in discussions on climate change and national security, among others. For this purpose, the short- and long-term price and income elasticities of light fuel demand were estimated using cointegration techniques, based on an empirical model that incorporates the unique features of the internal market. Despite the characteristics of the Brazilian fleet, the results showed that the elasticities found for the national market are similar to those seen in other countries. The conceptual framework and empirical analysis that were used also allowed for a better understanding of the differences between the results of studies on demand for gasoline, ethanol or natural gas in Brazil and those found in the international literature, providing key players in the sector with crucial information for designing public policies and business strategies.     

Assessing energy tax systems: The effects of energy taxation in Switzerland

The Swiss Federal Administration has recently proposed the urgent introduction of an energy tax. In this article the authors describe the range of tax structures which could be designed from various combinations of basic components. The fiscal, economic and administrative repercussions of various energy tax structures are traced through and compared with those of a value added tax. The authors examine, in particular, the effects of an energy tax in Switzerland and the interactions between such a tax and federal fiscal policies. The choice of a particular energy tax structure is a normative decision which must be left to the political process. The authors hope that this article will be useful in making such processes more transparent, more rational and more effective.     

Analyzing the characteristics of fuel extracted by catalytic conversion of waste engine oil

Production of hydrocarbon fuel from waste oil such as industrial and engine waste oil is an excellent way for producing alternating fuel sources. The aim of the present study is to obtain diesel-like fuel from waste engine oil (WEO) which can be used as an alternate fuel for compression ignition (CI) engine. With this aim in mind, WEO was purified from contaminants and thermally cracked with two different catalysts such as red mud and fly ash in a catalytic thermal reactor (CTR). The oil product obtained after catalytic conversion using red mud catalyst was named as WEORM and using fly ash catalyst was named as WEOFA. To investigate the influence of these two catalysts with WEO, different properties such as density, kinematic viscosity, calorific value, flash, and fire points were determined. Moreover, the compositional analyses for WEORM and WEOFA were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). FT-IR spectroscopy revealed the presence of several bonds which appeared in WEORM and WEOFA were almost identical to the diesel fuel. Further FT-IR results confirmed that most of the hydrocarbons present in WEORM and WEOFA were alkanes. Furthermore, in GC-MS analysis, WEORM and WEOFA were mainly composed of C₁₀–C₃₀ hydrocarbons with the presence of aliphatic hydrocarbons and aromatics. Similar to fossil diesel fuel, they mainly contain paraffins, napthenese, and aromatics. Our results revealed that WEO can be effectively recycled and reused as an alternate source of hydrocarbon energy.     

The welfare effects and the distributive impact of carbon taxation on Italian households

In this work the welfare effects and the distributive impact on Italian households of the Italian Carbon tax are calculated. The Carbon tax has been introduced in Italy at the beginning of 1999 asking for smooth increases, over a number of years, in the prices of most fossil fuels. Its welfare effects have been calculated using True Cost of Living index numbers and the Compensating Variation. The parameters have been obtained through estimation of a complete Almost Ideal demand system, using households data from 1985 to 1996. The welfare loss turns out to be quite substantial and affects Italian households in a non-negligible way, but the distribution of welfare losses across different levels of total monthly expenditures does not allow sustaining the regressivity of Carbon taxation, as the effect becomes bigger as we move up the income distribution. This evidence might encourage the use of Carbon taxes, at least in the transport sector, as cost-effective instruments of environmental policy, especially after the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change.     

Aviation fuel demand development in China

This paper analyzes the core factors and the impact path of aviation fuel demand in China and conducts a structural decomposition analysis of the aviation fuel cost changes and increase of the main aviation enterprises’ business profits. Through the establishment of an integrated forecast model for China’s aviation fuel demand, this paper confirms that the significant rise in China’s aviation fuel demand because of increasing air services demand is more than offset by higher aviation fuel efficiency. There are few studies which use a predictive method to decompose, estimate and analyze future aviation fuel demand. Based on a structural decomposition with indirect prediction, aviation fuel demand is decomposed into efficiency and total amount (aviation fuel efficiency and air transport total turnover). The core influencing factors for these two indexes are selected using path analysis. Then, univariate and multivariate models (ETS/ARIMA model and Bayesian multivariate regression) are used to analyze and predict both aviation fuel efficiency and air transport total turnover. At last, by integrating results, future aviation fuel demand is forecast. The results show that the aviation fuel efficiency goes up by 0.8% as the passenger load factor increases 1%; the air transport total turnover goes up by 3.8% and 0.4% as the urbanization rate and the per capita GDP increase 1%, respectively. By the end of 2015, China’s aviation fuel demand will have increased to 28 million tonnes, and is expected to be 50 million tonnes by 2020. With this in mind, increases in the main aviation enterprises’ business profits must be achieved through the further promotion of air transport.     

Assessment of transport fuel taxation strategies through integration of road transport in an energy system model—the case of Sweden

Road transport is responsible for a large and growing share of CO₂ emissions in most countries. A number of new fuel‐efficient vehicle technologies and renewable transport fuels are possible alternatives to conventional options but their deployment relies strongly on different policy measures. Even though a future higher use of transport biofuels and electric vehicles is likely to increase the interaction between the transportation sector and the stationary energy system (heat, power, etc.), these systems are often analysed separately. In this study, a transport module is developed and integrated into the MARKAL_Nordic energy system model. The transport module describes a range of vehicle technologies and fuel options as well as different paths for conversion of primary energy resources into transport fuels. The integrated model is utilized to analyse the impact of transport fuel tax designs on future cost‐effective fuel and technology choices in the Swedish transportation sector, as well as the consequences of these choices on system costs and CO₂ emissions. The model, which is driven by cost‐minimization, is run to 2050 with various assumptions regarding transport fuel tax levels and tax schemes. The results stress the importance of fuel taxes to accelerate the introduction of fuel‐efficient vehicle technologies such as hybrids and plug‐in hybrids. Tax exemptions can make biofuels an economically favourable choice for vehicle users. However, due to limitations in biomass supply, a too strong policy‐focus on transport biofuels can lead to high system costs in relation to the CO₂ abatement achieved. The modelling performed indicates that the effects caused by linkages between the transportation sector and the stationary energy system can be significant and integrated approaches are thus highly relevant. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analyzing the effects of immobile liquid saturation and spatial wettability variation on liquid water transport in diffusion media of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs)

Capillary-induced transport of liquid water inside the porous diffusion media (DM) of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) is strongly dependent on DM pore structure and material properties. As such, excessive liquid in the DM can be expelled more efficiently into flow channels by proper design of the DM structure. The present study is devoted to exploring multiphase transport characteristics by considering the effects of DM pore structure and material properties. Two main effects on overall water removability are examined, namely: (i) the effect of immobile liquid saturation, which is a threshold value for initiating macroscopic capillary transport via connected small liquid droplets, and (ii) the effect of hydrophobic spatial variation, which is encountered in typical DM treated with PTFE. Although these two effects are expected to influence significantly the transport characteristics in the fuel cell DM, they have been ignored in most two-phase fuel cell models reported in the literature. In the present work, these features are implemented into a one-dimensional, multiphase mixture (M²) fuel cell model along the through-plane direction, where both anode and cathode sides and the membrane are fully incorporated. The results of the model simulation clearly demonstrate the dramatic influence of the amount of liquid accumulation and capillary transport characteristics inside the DM. The findings are useful for designing and optimizing DM for the purpose of effective water removal.     

Analyzing a micro-solid oxide fuel cell system by global energy balances

A simple method to predict the thermal characteristics of a micro-SOFC system is presented in this study. The basic design requirements for a thermally self-sustaining operation at a stack temperature of about 550 °C are assessed. Based on steady-state global energy and mass balances, the influence of the electrical efficiency, the overall air-to-fuel ratio and the heat losses on the operating temperature is discussed. It was found that at high electrical efficiencies and, hence, low heat release rates, a recuperator is needed to achieve the desired operating temperature. At lower electrical efficiencies, in contrast, disposing the released heat becomes an issue and an efficient cooling of the stack is required. Whether a recuperator or additional cooling components are necessary also depends on the electrical power output, the stack size and the thermal insulation specifications. The threshold between cooling and recuperator mode is of special interest, since this operating point allows a simple design of the thermal system without recuperator and only a minimum of air to be supplied to the system. This threshold efficiency, which is the maximal electrical efficiency that allows a thermally self-sustaining operation without recuperator, is above 50% under adiabatic operating conditions. In a non-adiabatic system, the threshold efficiency is reduced to about 45% in a 20 W_el and to about 20% in a 2.5 W_el system even with a state-of-the art thermal insulation. The considered thermal insulations dominate the system volume. Therefore, the ability of heat loss minimization is highly dependent on the targeted volumetric power density of the system.     

The distributional incidence of the gasoline tax in Chile

This paper analyzes the distributional incidence of the excise tax on gasoline in Chile using Household Budget Surveys. The incidence is calculated with respect to both income and expenditure distributions in order to consider the potential differences between transitory and permanent income. The Suits Index is estimated as a measure of the degree of progressivity of the tax, and confidence intervals are calculated using a bootstrap methodology to statistically compare changes in the incidence given changes in the tax. The results show that the tax, contrary to the evidence for several developed countries, is slightly or moderately progressive, with a lower degree of progressivity observed in the calculations based on income than those based on expenditure. The simulation of the 25% reduction in the tax rate implemented in 2008 shows that, in terms of incidence, its effect is to reduce the progressivity of the gasoline tax, which is the opposite of what was sought by the government with this policy.     

生物质成型燃料产业在我国的发展

1生物质成型燃料概念及种类通常,生物质成型燃料是指将干枯的草本类(如农作物秸秆)、木本类(如树枝)植物经粉碎后,在一定的压力作用下压缩成为一种固形物,所以也称之     

Rural energy and fuel forests in China

The structure of rural energy consumption for living (domestic) in China is presented based on the nationwide survey conducted from 1986 to 1987. The fuelwood energy consumed amounted to 29% of the totally consumed living energy. The average deficit of fuelwood supply was about 25% for the whole country. The reasonable exploitation of fuelwood resource was 265 Mm³, while the actual fuelwood consumption was 355 Mm³. A fuelwood demand of 443 Mm³ by 2000 was predicted based on a model. Another 4.2 Mha of fuel forests need to be established. The main problems existing in the management and utilization of fuel forests in China are analyzed, and some recommendations are presented.     

Emergy analysis of cassava-based fuel ethanol in China

Emergy analysis considers both energy quality and energy used in the past, and compensates for the inability of money to value non-market inputs in an objective manner. Its common unit allows all resources to be compared on a fair basis. As feedstock for fuel ethanol, cassava has some advantages over other feedstocks. The production system of cassava-based fuel ethanol (CFE) was evaluated by emergy analysis. The emergy indices for the system of cassava-based fuel ethanol (CFE) are as follows: transformity is 1.10 E + 5 sej/J, EYR is 1.07, ELR is 2.55, RER is 0.28, and ESI is 0.42. Compared with the emergy indices of wheat ethanol and corn ethanol, CFE is the most sustainable. CFE is a good alternative to substitute for oil in China. Non-renewable purchased emergy accounts for 71.15% of the whole input emergy. The dependence on non-renewable energy increases environmental degradation, making the system less sustainable relative to systems more dependent on renewable energies. For sustainable development, it is vital to reduce the consumption of non-renewable energy in the production of CFE.     

Modelling the impact of energy taxation

Energy taxation in Sweden is complicated and strongly guides and governs district energy production. Consequently, there is a need for methods for accurate calculation and analysis of effects that different energy tax schemes may have on district energy utilities. Here, a practicable method to analyse influence of such governmental policy measures is demonstrated. The Swedish Government has for some years now been working on a reform of energy taxation, and during this process, several interest groups have expressed their own proposals for improving and developing the system of energy taxation. Together with the present system of taxation, four new alternatives, including the proposed directive of the European Commission, are outlined in the paper. In a case study, an analysis is made of how the different tax alternatives may influence the choice of profitable investments and use of energy carriers in a medium‐sized district‐heating utility. The calculations are made with a linear‐programming model framework. By calculating suitable types and sizes of new investments, if any, and the operation of existing and potential plants, total energy costs are minimized. Results of the analysis include the most profitable investments, which fuel should be used, roughly when during a year plants should be in operation, and at what output. In most scenarios, the most profitable measure is to invest in a waste incineration plant. However, a crucial assumption is, with reference to the new Swedish waste disposal act, a significant income from incinerating refuse. Without this income, different tax schemes result in different technical solutions being most profitable. An investment in cogeneration seems possible in only one scenario. It is also found that particular features of some alternatives seem to oppose both main governmental policy goals, and intentions of the district heating company. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

我国发展甘蔗燃料乙醇的战略思考

甘蔗和木薯是热带、亚热带作物,对山坡地、沙洲地和盐碱地等边际性土地有较强的适应性,在蔗糖主产区广西、云南、广东、海南等地广泛种植。木薯燃料乙醇面临原料供应不足、价格上涨的问题。文章分析了以甘蔗作为燃料乙醇原料具有的优势,同时对我国长期食糖需求及支撑食糖需求的土地潜力进行了研究。研究表明,与木薯原料相比,以甘蔗原料生产燃料乙醇具有单位土地面积产量高、综合利用价值高、节能减排效果好等优势,同时具有保护环境、稳定食糖价格等作用。只要食糖价格合理,在保证我国粮食安全与食糖安全的前提下,通过实施间套种技术,近期可以实现100万t甘蔗燃料乙醇的产能,远期的产能目标为200万～300万t。     

CO2 emissions reduction by price deregulation and fossil fuel taxation A case study of Indonesia

As environmental issues, and the issue of global warming in particular, rise to the top of the international agenda, developing nations are faced with a major question: how to confront these environmental problems and simultaneously address a number of more pressing developmental imperatives? This paper tries to answer that question on a limited scale using Indonesia as a case study. The study indicates that by deregulating energy prices and imposing different levels of taxation on fossil fuels, Indonesia could reduce its CO₂ emissions without considerably suppressing the growth of its economy. In the long run, however, these policies cannot cope with the inevitable rise in coal-use in Indonesia, due to constraints on domestic natural gas and oil resources. Limiting the growth of coal consumption in the future will require direct technological intervention in the supply and demand of energy and a shift in current energy export and import policies.     

Insight into fuel reactivity effects on thermochemical fuel reforming (TFR)

This study uses a port-injection spark-ignition four-cylinder natural gas engine to achieve TFR (Thermochemical fuel reforming) mode. To study the effects of fuel reactivity on combustion, reforming process, emissions and fuel economy, chemicals including n-heptane, PRF50 and isooctane are respectively used as enriched fuel. The results show that the higher the reactivity of the enriched fuel, the better the combustion and cycle stability of the reforming cylinder. However, n-heptane enrichment with high reactivity has the problem of knocking at large equivalence ratio. The enrichment limit of PRF50 is the highest, which combines the properties of n-heptane and isooctane. The H₂ production abilities of three enriched fuels are similar, but that of isooctane is slightly lower under large equivalence ratios. In terms of fuel economy, the three perform similarly at small equivalence ratios. Whereas it’s lower with isooctane enrichment at large equivalence ratios, which is at the expense of increased NOx emission.     

Numerical investigation of the effects of fuel spray type on the interaction of fuel spray and hot porous medium

The interaction between two types of fuel spray and a hot porous medium is studied numerically by using an improved version of KIVA-3V code. The improved KIVA-3V code is incorporated with an impingement model, a heat transfer model and a linearized instability sheet atomization (LISA) model to model the hollow cone spray. An evaporating fuel spray impingement on a hot plane surface was simulated under conditions of experiments performed by Senda to validate the reasonability of the KIVA-3V code. The numerical results conform well with experimental data for spray radius in the liquid and the vapor phases. Computational results on the interaction of two types of the fuel spray and the hot porous medium show that the fuel spray can be split, which provides conditions for quick evaporation of fuel droplets and mixing of fuel vapor with air. The possibility of fuel droplets from hollow cone spray crossing the porous medium reduces compared with that from solid cone spray, with the same initial kinetic energy of fuel droplets in both injection types.     

Numerical investigation of the effects of fuel spray type on the interaction of fuel spray and hot porous medium

The interaction between two types of fuel spray and a hot porous medium is studied numerically by using an improved version of KIVA-3V code. The improved KIVA-3V code is incorporated with an impingement model, a heat transfer model and a linearized instability sheet atomization (LISA) model to model the hollow cone spray. An evaporating fuel spray impingement on a hot plane surface was simulated under conditions of experiments performed by Senda to validate the reasonability of the KIVA-3V code. The numerical results conform well with experimental data for spray radius in the liquid and the vapor phases. Computational results on the interaction of two types of the fuel spray and the hot porous medium show that the fuel spray can be split, which provides conditions for quick evaporation of fuel droplets and mixing of fuel vapor with air. The possibility of fuel droplets from hollow cone spray crossing the porous medium reduces compared with that from solid cone spray, with the same initial kinetic energy of fuel droplets in both injection types. __________ Translated from Journal of Engineering Thermophysics, 2007, 28(2): 354–356 [译自: 工程热物理学报]