Emphasising enhancement in all forms of impact assessment: introduction to a special issue

In the context of impact assessment (IA), ‘enhancement’ refers to deliberate attempts taken in the design and subsequent phases of projects, programmes, plans and policies to ensure the success of a wider range of direct and indirect positive outcomes to communities and/or the biophysical environment. This can be in the form of opportunities for social and community development, improved health and wellbeing, improved biodiversity, restored ecosystems and landscape character, and protected and respected cultural heritage. This first ever special issue on enhancement advocates that all forms of IA should consider opportunities for enhancement. Specific reference is made to strategic environmental assessment (SEA), environmental impact assessment (EIA), social impact assessment (SIA) and health impact assessment (HIA). The paper presents views from IA practitioners regarding perceptions of the barriers to greater use of enhancement in IA and suggestions for possible solutions to those barriers. Investment in enhancement initiatives contributes to sustainable development and resilience, and is consistent with corporate social responsibility obligations of proponents.     

Developing environmental management systems to deliver mitigation and protect the EIA process during follow up

Developmental projects are dynamic in the manner in which proponents react to issues or events arising during the conceptual planning, design or construction phases. The basic challenge of integrating environmental impact assessment (EIA) into an existing environmental management system (EMS) is to provide adequate control while allowing flexibility to cope with site-specific project requirements. Environmental management plans (EMP) are one way of controlling the environmental effects of construction projects. These contain project-specific protocols that act as an EMS interface between the EIA and subsequent project planning and development phases. This paper developed from the EIA follow-up session of IAIA 2001 in Cartagena, Columbia outlines the framework for an EMP and its application in respect of the development of an electrical infrastructure project within the UK.     

Urban regeneration and impact assessment for social sustainability

This paper provides a working definition of social sustainability and highlights the growing array of social sustainability assessment tools (e.g. SIA, HIA, equality impact assessment, SA). Within EIA the social dimension has been very much the ‘poor relation’. However, changes in the UK planning system, the drive for sustainable communities, and for greater public involvement in decision making are raising the profile of the social dimension. This is particularly relevant for urban regeneration projects, which are often mixed use (including housing), and with the potential for development to be shaped by community involvement. The paper includes a review of recent environmental statements (ESs) for regeneration projects in the UK, which provides findings on, for example, the inclusion of social factors in the process; scope of such factors; methodological approaches and impact assessment tools; and role of community involvement. The research raises questions about the extent to which social issues shape outcomes; it also highlights some important challenges, including the key issue of ‘integration versus disintegration’ in the scope and process of impact assessment.     

Assessing impacts on people's relationships to place and community in health impact assessment: an anthropological approach

This paper explores a way in which health impact assessment (HIA) practitioners can improve their evaluation of the effects of infrastructure developments on people's intangible connections and emotional attachments to places and communities, and their health impacts. This assessment poses conceptual and methodological challenges. It is argued that social anthropology and the social sciences offer HIA a conceptual vocabulary and a methodology for exploring these relationships. These relationships are defined then positioned in HIA as an outcome of the health determinant, social capital. The paper offers a critique of their treatment in an HIA case study from the United Kingdom. Its shortcomings are used to propose a predominantly qualitative, anthropological methodology. The overall approach offers benefits. Practitioners gain clarification, new tools, a more holistic HIA, and links between these relationships, well-being, and sustainability and resilience. Developers are shown how to sensitise their approach, potentially enhancing community support.     

The impact of the IIRSA Road Infrastructure Programme on Amazonia

This paper demonstrates the judicial and organisational obstacles to environmental impact assessment (EIA) follow-up in Finland, and that attitudes and lack of knowledge have a role in the degradation of EIA follow-up in general. An overview is presented of the present Finnish legislation and practices concerning EIA follow-up in road projects. These are illustrated by a case study representing the ‘best practice’ in Finland so far. One of the main conclusions is that follow-up is not perceived as an essential part of EIA. Neither is it recognised as a tool to control the quality of EIA and to improve future assessments. In fact, EIA follow-up is not even required at the project level in the relevant Finnish legislation. Socio-economic impacts are often regarded as complicated, laborious and expensive to monitor at the project level. However, proponents and other key players might find follow-up useful if the subject was regulated and promoted properly.     

Human health,development legacies,and cumulative effects: environmental assessments of hydroelectric projects in the Nelson River watershed,Canada

This article examines the current practice of assessing a project’s cumulative effects to health and well-being in a region characterized by a legacy of resource development and Indigenous land use. The context is hydroelectric development in northern Manitoba, Canada. Based on a review of environmental assessment (EA) regulatory applications and panel reports, results indicate that the consideration of health in EA has improved over time, with proponents adopting a holistic definition of health, but impact analyses remained restricted to physical health conditions with social and cultural health impacts to Indigenous communities receiving only limited attention. Multiple common indicators were identified across recent EA applications that relate to health and well-being, but they were not mapped to health determinants, supported by only limited analysis of causal mechanisms, and rarely used to assess the significance of project actions in combination with past projects and the enduring impacts of a 55-year legacy of hydroelectric development. The article concludes with a discussion of the state of practice and offers suggestions for improved coordination of EA for assessing cumulative effects to health and well-being, including adoption of Indigenous health determinants, and the roles of governments and proponents regarding the consideration of legacy effects in project reviews.     

The politics of green transformations,edited by Ian Scoones,Melissa Leach and Peter Newell

Abstract

Stakeholder engagement in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Health Impact Assessment (HIA) provides opportunities for inclusive environmental decision-making contributing to the attainment of agreement about the potential environmental and health impacts of a plan. A case evaluation of stakeholder engagement was carried out to assess its effect in terms of consensus-building. The case consisted in two health impact scoping workshops engaging 20 stakeholders: policy-makers, experts and residents. A Participatory Action Research approach was adopted. Methods included observation, semi-structured questionnaires and interviews. Analysis methods consisted of several coding rounds, in-depth reading and discussion of Atlas.ti output reports, as well as studying questionnaire results. Participants reported a broadening of perspectives on health in relation to the environment and attainment of shared perspectives. Still, meaningful differences remained, indicating that joint learning experiences, trust and mutual respect created a ‘sense of consensus’ rather than a joint view on the issues at stake. To avoid disappointment and conflict in later project development, explicit acknowledgment and acceptance of disagreements should be included as a ground rule in future stakeholder engagement processes.     

Bringing health impact assessment to the Mongolian resource sector: a story of successful diffusion

Following the 2009 signing of the stability agreement between the Mongolian Government and Canadian mining company Turquoise Hill Resources (formerly known as Ivanhoe Mines), researchers from Simon Fraser University secured funding from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research to conduct applied knowledge translation (KT) research that introduces health impact assessment (HIA) to Mongolia's rapidly emerging resource sector. HIA is a highly regarded informed decision-making tool that helps to identify, assess and mitigate (or promote) potential positive and negative human health impacts of policies, projects and programs. We engaged in a series of knowledge synthesis, KT and dissemination activities with key public and private sector stakeholders as well as community representatives. Our goals were to develop consensus on a socially and culturally appropriate approach to equity-focused HIA, draw on this consensus to develop a contextualized HIA toolkit, build local HIA capacity based on this toolkit, strengthen the HIA regulatory environment and provide evidence-based support for efforts to institutionalize HIA in the resource sector. These efforts have resulted in the inclusion of HIA in the environmental impact assessment law of Mongolia, and the focus has now shifted from KT to further supporting HIA institutionalization and practice.     

Public participation in EIA: the case of West African Gas Pipeline and Tank Farm projects in Nigeria

This paper assesses the extent to which public participation has been fully translated into practice the case of West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP) and Tank Farm (TF) projects in Nigeria. The empirical basis for this paper is constituted by published environmental impact assessment (EIA) report for the WAGP and TF projects. In addition to this, face-to-face semi-structured interviews were used to corroborate whether provisions of public participation as documented in WAGP and TF projects' EIA report have been fully translated into practice. The lack of compliance noticed with TF project was not surprising as such, being an indigenous oil company, but our expectation is that WAGP project, which is not just a multinational project alone but also sponsored by the World Bank, should comprehensively serve as a yardstick for other projects in Nigeria, although the reverse is the case. The findings further show that institutional problems have prevented public participation from being translated into practice. These institutional problems arise from deep-seated economic and social factors.     

Integrating mine closure planning with environmental impact assessment: challenges and opportunities drawn from African and Australian practice

Abstract

Best practice mine closure planning and environmental impact assessment (EIA) principles share many common features. This research examined how mine closure planning relates to, and can be integrated with EIA by comparing practice in eight African and Australian jurisdictions. Emphasis was placed on key challenges and opportunities associated with: institutional arrangements for mine closure planning; financial mechanisms for mine site closure and rehabilitation including abandoned/legacy mine sites; transparency of mine closure planning and financing provisions; and regulation of artisanal and small-scale mining activity. Data were gathered through document analysis, interviews and interactions with practitioners from Western Australia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia. Issues associated with mine closure planning and rehabilitation under existing arrangements and opportunities for improvement through existing EIA processes already in place in each jurisdiction are explored. All eight jurisdictions have appropriate regulatory provisions in place already, but implementation capacity remains a challenge. Opportunities for effective practice lie in using mine closure planning and EIA measures in an integrated fashion, avoiding duplication and enabling synergies in management to be realised.     

Referees 2009

Abstract

Impact significance determination lies at the heart of environmental impact assessment (EIA) but conflict and misunderstanding around the concept is common. This paper attempts to make sense of impact significance in EIA based on four essential components of significance synthesised from the literature to ensure that: (1) a clear operational framework for significance determination applies throughout EIA, (2) attention focuses only on significant issues, (3) the term significance is specified and applied consistently, and (4) significance determinations are transparent to all EIA stakeholders. To provide a practical perspective, the extent to which EIA institutional provisions in Western Australia uphold these significance determination components is reviewed. Overall the Western Australian approach generally meets all four components, but areas for improvement include better guidance encouraging proponents to adopt a more consultative approach to determining relevant environmental factors and objectives to better focus EIA, and distinguishing between terms used for significance within EIA documentation. A new significance framework approach in Western Australia represents a clear attempt to uplift practice, but opportunity exists to improve the way impact significance determinations are presented to stakeholders. EIA practitioners may benefit from mapping and making sense of impact significance in their own jurisdiction using the four components presented.     

Mental health impact assessment: population mental health in Englewood,Chicago, Illinois,USA

In this paper, we describe a pilot mental health impact assessment (MHIA) undertaken by the Institute on Social Exclusion (ISE) at the Adler School of Professional Psychology. This pilot involved a multi-method approach that included literature reviews and direct engagement of community stakeholders. It resulted in a policy document that summarized the anticipated effects of a proposed amendment to Chicago's Vacant Buildings Ordinance on the collective mental health of people living in Englewood, a neighbourhood located on the city's southwest side. The Chicago City Council passed the proposed amendment in the summer of 2011.Working to advance health impact assessment (HIA) practice, the project aimed to assist Englewood residents by empowering them to participate in the systematic review of a proposed policy change that would impact their own community's mental health. Additionally, the pilot sought to ensure that any policy decision reflected an evidence-based understanding of its probable effects on the mental health of Englewood residents. Thus, these efforts were designed to narrow several health inequities as suggested by key indicators of community mental health.     

A proposal for further strengthening science in environmental impact assessment in Canada

We observe ongoing weaknesses in the quality of science underpinning environmental impact assessment (EIA) in Canada. This is frustrating because approaches for strong scientific practice in EIA were published decades ago. A major failing has been the lack of scientific support from outside the EIA practitioner community. We argue for a re-conception of science associated with EIA that includes a rigorous scholarship of application inside EIA and a vigorous scholarship of integration outside it. Cases of exemplary organizational structures and science applications in the Canadian forest sector are given. To turn EIA from the often bitter battleground of shallow impact debates to an enterprise of strong accumulation of effects knowledge, we urge the relevant communities of researchers and practitioners to become embedded communities of practice and reform the way science contributes to EIA.     

Establishing mixed method research design guidelines in health impact assessment investigations

In the last decade local policymakers and community health officials have been using a Health Impact Assessment (HIA) strategy to assess the health impacts of their policy decisions. The HIA research design is founded on the mixed method research approach (integration of quantitative and qualitative data slices within a single investigation) to get as comprehensive assessment as possible of the expected impacts. The HIA literature has yet to provide any guidelines on how community health investigators should conduct a mixed-method HIA research. We conducted a content analysis of 100 HIAs executed around the world published between 1999 and 2011 and analysed their research methodologies. Observations generated from the analysed HIAs were used to establish an ‘HIA mixed method model’ by which a series of mixed-method design guidelines were used to help community health researchers improve the analytical capabilities in their future HIA investigations.     

Use and effectiveness of health impact assessment in the energy and natural resources sector in the United States, 2007 – 2016

Decisions made in the energy and natural resources sector can affect public health. This report reviews the characteristics and assesses the effectiveness of health impact assessments (HIAs) conducted in this sector. A total of 30 HIAs conducted in 14 states in the United States were identified using a targeted literature search. Five HIAs illustrative of the different source and sub-sector categories, and with identifiable impacts on decision-making processes were selected for review. An existing conceptual framework (Wismar) was used to assess the effectiveness of the five selected HIAs on decision-making related to non-renewable energy, renewable energy, mining, and energy conservation. The 30 HIAs were performed for a variety of projects and assessed health impacts ranging from metabolic disorders to community livability. Eight of the 30 reports were incorporated into environmental impact assessments. All five selected HIAs were generally effective and raised awareness of the health effects of the projects being assessed; four were directly effective and led to changes in final project decisions. Their variable effectiveness may be related to the extent of community engagement and consideration of equity issues, differences in the details and quality of monitoring and evaluation plans devised as part of the HIA process, and whether the outcomes of monitoring and evaluation are reported.     

The new EIA Directive (2014/52/EU) and UK water impact assessment practice

This paper considers how impact assessment practice relating to all aspects of the water environment will be affected by the transposition of the amended environmental impact assessment (EIA) Directive (2014/52/EU) into UK legislation. Key elements of the new Directive are identified, such as requirements relating to monitoring, climate change (including adaptation), biodiversity, human health and coordination with Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) (WFD) Assessment. The extent to which existing guidance and practice already meet these new requirements is assessed, through a review of relevant guidance and selected environmental statements (ESs). Key areas where water impact assessment (WIA) practice needs to be adapted to take account of the new requirements are identified. Substantial changes in practice are likely to be required to incorporate human health assessment into WIA and to demonstrate that competent experts are used to conduct WIA. New guidance will be needed relating to competent experts and improved guidance will be required for WFD Assessment.     

Carbon definitions and typologies in environmental impact assessment: greenhouse gas confusion?

Estimation of emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) is becoming an established part of assessing sustainability within environmental impact assessment (EIA). However, a comparative study of 25 environmental impact statements (EISs) to analyse the practice of accounting for emissions during the EIA process suggests that consideration of the effects of development on emissions of GHG is poorly understood. The extent to which assessment is actually carried out is also inconsistent and sporadically implemented. A key indicator appears to be the varying and sometimes contradictory use of technical terminology, particularly of the term ‘carbon’ and its similar phraseology. This paper provides a critical evaluation of the differing terminology that is applied to GHG assessments undertaken as part of EIA process and explores the effect that misuse of these terms could have on an impact EIS.     

Public understanding of risk in health impact assessment: a psychosocial approach

Development projects inevitably pose risks to the health of humans and the planet. Health impact assessment (HIA) practitioners increasingly evaluate the mental health effects of development but have rarely considered those caused by public understanding of risk (‘risk perception’) itself a determinant of health. This paper proposes a new psychosocial model of public understanding of risk in response to the literature on perceived high risk developments. It exemplifies the psychosocial process that occurs when people respond to industrial threats to health. In doing this, it draws upon literature from psychology, social science and public health. The model is foregrounded in the context of psychosocial health in HIA. The paper also reviews the health and well-being effects that may result. Overall, it is argued that the philosophical and moral underpinnings of HIA compel practitioners and developers to understand the formation and ongoing development of public understandings of risk in light of the cultural, demographic, temporal and other contextual factors shaping them in unique development contexts where HIAs are undertaken, and how understandings of risk actually affect community health. We encourage them to propose mitigation measures and solutions that accord with the values of Planetary Health.     

Development of a quality assurance review framework for health impact assessments

The use of health impact assessments (HIAs) has rapidly increased over the last two decades and has been undertaken to evaluate the health implications of many new projects across the globe. In July 2017, Wales became the first country to legislate for broad approach HIAs, i.e. it considers not only environmental health effects but the social determinants of health, well-being and inequalities. Although the introduction of statutory HIA will ensure the use of HIAs, experts have expressed concerns that legislative measures could lead to poor-quality HIAs and associated reports. This paper outlines the development process and analytical reflections of a quality assurance (QA) review framework for HIAs. The framework has been developed over a 2-year period which allowed the collective intellectual capital behind it to evolve in response to practice-based learning. A standardised form of QA for all types and levels of HIA will provide greater clarity regarding the required criteria for conducting and completing an HIA and ensuring this takes place in a robust, interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral manner. Therefore, this QA review framework should fit into existing HIA practice and complement other tools such as best practice guidance to sustain the global reputation of HIA.     

Development of the EIA process in Cyprus

It is expected that Cyprus will join the European Union (EU) during the next enlargement (anticipated 2003-2005) and will therefore need to incorporate various European legislation, regulations and standards into existing legal, administrative and operational frameworks, including environmental impact assessment (EIA) as set out in Directives 85/337/EEC and 97/11/EC. This paper evaluates the Cyprus EIA provisions and makes a number of suggestions and recommendations as to how the Cyprus EIA process may be improved. Provisional EIA legislation in Cyprus includes some, but not all, of the European EIA requirements. The Cyprus EIA process in practice is highly variable, in some instances struggling to achieve the requirements of existing Cyprus legislation, and in others going beyond even Directive 97/11/EC. The findings of this study can be used to assist in updating the current Cyprus EIA system to reach the EIA standards set by the EU.