In vivo measurement of unattached radon progeny deposited in the human respiratory tract

Seven nose breathing and seven mouth breathing volunteers were exposed to atmospheres enriched with unattached radon progeny (218Po, 214Pb and 214Bi). The activity of these radionuclides deposited in the respiratory tract was measured in vivo after the exposures. The results of these measurements are in agreement with predictions calculated with the ICRP Publication 66 Human Respiratory Tract Model. Temporal analysis of the activity deposited in the heads of the volunteers leads to the conclusion that a significant amount of the deposited activity associated with particle diameters of about 1 nm is not subject to a fast transport to the gastrointestinal tract as generally reported for larger aerosol particles.     

Assessment of the dose from radon and its decay products in the Bozkov dolomite cave

The dose from radon and its progeny remains a frequently discussed problem. ICRP 65 provides a commonly used methodology to calculate the dose from radon. Our work focuses on a cave environment and on assessing the doses in public open caves. The differences in conditions (aerosol size distribution, humidity, radon and its progeny ratio, etc.) are described by the so-called cave factor j. The cave factor is used to correct the dose for workers which is calculated using the ICRP 65 recommendation. In this work, the authors have brought together measured data of aerosol size distribution, unattached and attached fraction activity, and have calculated the so-called cave factor for the Bozkov dolomite cave environment. The dose conversion factors based on measured data and used for evaluating the cave factor were calculated by LUDEP software, which implements HRTM ICRP66.     

Influence of variability of 214Pb recoil factor on lung dose

Different parameters enter models of the human respiratory tract. The unattached fraction of the radon progeny was identified as the most important parameter, with the strongest influence on lung dose. The unattached fraction depends on the indoor aerosol concentration and other environmental conditions. The recoil factor, p, which influences the unattached fraction of 214Pb and 214Bi, defined as the average detachment probability from the aerosol after an alpha decay of 218Po, has almost always been taken as a constant. Here the recoil factor was recalculated under different assumptions and found to be in the range between 0.1 and 0.8. A smaller recoil factor means lower unattached fractions of 214Pb and 214Bi. The influence of the recoil factor on lung dose was also estimated. The lung dose is smaller by about 10% if p = 0.1 is assumed in calculating the unattached fraction instead of p = 0.8.     

Influence of radioactive aerosol and biological parameters of inhaled radon progeny on human lung dose

The present work focuses on assessing the influence of biological and aerosol parameters on human lung dose. The dose conversion factor (DCF), which gives the relationship between the effective dose and the potential alpha energy concentration of inhaled short-lived radon progeny (218Po, 214Pb, 214Bi/214Po) is estimated using a dosimetric approach related to the International Commission on Radiological Protection(ICRP). The calculations are based on the measurements of the distribution of activity size of indoor radon progeny, their unattached fraction (f(b)) and potential alpha energy concentration (E). These experimental data are measured using a low-pressure cascade impactor and a wire-screen diffusion battery. Because of the short half-lives of the investigated nuclides, modifications that simplify the dose calculation are possible. The radioactive aerosol and biological parameters are varied in order to assess the DCF arising from the uncertainty of these parameters. The main emphasis is on the variation of the ventilation rate, breathing mode, critical cells for the induction of lung cancer and the parameters of the attached and unattached activity size distribution of the radon progeny. The investigation shows that the DCF is more than a factor of two higher than the values recommended by the ICRP, namely 3.9 mSv WLM(-1) for the public and 5.1 mSv WLM(-1) for working places. The dose results for indoor aerosol conditions are in the range 2.3-2.6 mSv WLM(-1) depending on the breathing mode.     

Physical parameters and dose factors of the radon and thoron decay products

The dose per exposure unit of the short-lived radon and thoron decay products was calculated using a dosimetric approach. The calculations are based on a lung dose model with the structure that is related to the ICRP 66 respiratory tract model. The dose relevant parameters, unattached fraction of the decay product clusters (fp) and size distribution of the unattached and aerosol-attached decay products for different living and working places are reported. Taking into account these characteristics the dose conversion factors (DCF) of the radon and thoron decay products were estimated. In addition, the living and working places were divided concerning their aerosol parameters like particle number concentration and activity size distribution.     

QA programme for radon and its short-lived progeny measuring instruments in NRPI Prague

To subserve the institutional research and tasks coming out from the Czech National Radon Programme, a new QA programme to calibrate all the known types of devices that measure radon and its short-lived progeny was developed at the Department of Radon mobile group of the National Radiation Protection Institute (NRPI) at Prague. The programme also included calibration of instruments measuring a unique quantity of unattached and attached fractions of short- lived radon progeny Generally, NRPI declares estimation of radon concentration during all routine calibration measurements with an overall uncertainty <5% (one sigma) and of equilibrium-equivalent radon concentration with an overall uncertainty <10% (one sigma). The results of the comparative measurements of the unattached and attached fractions of each short-lived radon progeny carried out with a comparing continuous monitor Fritra 4 in the German reference radon chamber at PTB Braunschweig indicated an acceptable level of agreement, up to 10%.     

Radon progeny size distributions and enhanced deposition effects from high radon concentrations in an enclosed chamber

Prior work studying radon progeny in a small enclosed chamber found that at high (222)Rn concentrations an enhanced surface deposition was observed. Subsequent measurements for unfiltered air showed minimal charged particle mobility influence. Progeny particle size measurements reported here, performed at the US Department of Energy Environmental Measurement Laboratory (now with Home Security Department), using the EML graded screen array (GSA) system show in unfiltered air that the high (222)Rn levels causes a reduction in the attached (218)Po progeny airborne particulates and formation of additional normal sized unattached ( approximately 0.80 nm) and also even smaller (218)Po below 0.50 nm. At a (222)Rn level of 51 kBq m(-3), 73% of all (218)Po are of a mean particle diameter of about 0.40 +/- 0.02 nm. At this (222)Rn level, the ratio of (218)Po to (222)Rn airborne concentrations is reduced significantly from the concentration ratio at low (222)Rn levels. Similar reductions and size reformations were observed for the (214)Pb and (214)Bi/Po progeny. The particle size changes are further confirmed using the plateout rates and corresponding deposition velocities. The Crump and Seinfeld deposition theory provides the corresponding particle diffusion coefficients. With the diffusion coefficient to ultrafine clustered particle diameter correlation of Ramamurthi and Hopke, good agreement is obtained between EML GSA and deposition velocity data down to 0.40 nm. Strong evidence is presented that the progeny size reduction is due to, as a result of air ionization, the increased neutralization rate (primarily from electron scavenging of OH molecules) of the initially charged progeny. This is shown to increase with the (1/2) power of (222)Rn concentration and relative humidity as well as increased air change rate in the chamber. These results imply that at (222)Rn levels above 50 kBq m(-3), at relative humidity of 52%, a considerable reduction in lung dose could occur from preferential deposition of the progeny in the nasal and oral passages.     

Are radon gas measurements adequate for epidemiological studies and case control studies of radon-induced lung cancer?

The lung dose derived from radon is not attributed to the radon gas itself, but instead to its short-lived progeny. However, in many epidemiological studies as well as in case control studies of the radon risk, the excess number of cancers are related to the radon gas exposure, and not to the radon progeny exposure. A justification for such an approach has resorted to the assumption that there is self-compensation between the radiation doses from the unattached and attached fractions. In the present study, we used the Jacobi model to calculate the radon progeny concentrations in a room by varying the attachment rate and then calculated the resulting lung dose. It was found that self-compensation was not fully realised, and the effective dose can vary by a factor up to approximately 2 for the same radon gas concentration. In conclusion, the radon gas concentration alone does not provide adequate information on the effective dose.     

A fully automated radon exposure chamber

A fully automated radon exposure chamber is described. The chamber is made of stainless steel and has a volume of 1.46 m³. The chamber allows ²²²Rn, ²²⁰Rn or both to be injected from the bottom pipe-lines into the chamber in a 100% flow-through mode, 100% recirculate mode or flow-through/recirculate mode. Either atmospheric aerosol or monodisperse aerosol from aerosol generator can be injected into the chamber. The radon concentration; radon daughter concentration; unattached fraction of radon daughters; aerosol size distribution and activity size distribution of radon daughters in aerosols are continuously monitored by computers and feedback signals are used to maintain the specified condition. Though the chamber may be small when compared to walk-in type exposure room, it has the advantage of fast response to changes in the chamber condition and yet is large enough to preclude perturbations due to sampling or other activities.     

Evaluation and comparison of measurements of unattached and attached radon progeny in the radon chamber of PTB Braunschweig (Germany) with NRPI Praha (Czech Republic)

On the case of a parallel metrological measurement of unattached and attached concentrations of radon progeny, the evaluation by an inversion of the Jacobi-Porstend?rfer room model indicates a real overestimation of the concentration of RaA ((218)Po).     

Invariants of the Jacobi-Porstendorfer room model for radon progeny in indoor air

The Jacobi-Porstend?rfer room model, describing the dynamical behaviour of radon and radon progeny in indoor air, has been successfully used for decades. The inversion of the model-the determination of the five parameters from measured results which provide better information on the room environment than mere ratios of unattached and attached radon progeny-is treated as an algebraic task. The linear interdependence of the used equations strongly limits the algebraic invertibility of experimental results. For a unique solution, the fulfilment of two invariants of the room model for the measured results is required. Non-fulfilment of these model invariants by the measured results leads to a set of non-identical solutions and indicates the violation of the conditions required by the room model or the incorrectness or excessive uncertainties of the measured results. The limited and non-unique algebraic invertibility of the room model is analysed numerically using our own data for the radon progeny.     

Assessment of environmental radon hazard using human respiratory tract models

Radon is a natural radioactive gas derived from geological materials. It has been estimated that about half of the total effective dose received by human beings from all sources of ionizing radiation is attributed to 222Rn and its short-lived progeny. In this paper, the use of human respiratory tract models to assess the health hazard from environmental radon is reviewed. A short history of dosimetric models for the human respiratory tract from the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) is first presented. The most important features of the newest model published by ICRP in 1994 (as ICRP Publication 66) are then described, including the morphometric model, physiological parameters, radiation biology, deposition of aerosols, clearance model and dose weighting. Comparison between different morphometric models and comparison between different deposition models are then given. Finally, the significance of various parameters in the lung model is discussed, including aerosol parameters, subject related parameters, target and cell related parameters, and parameters that define the absorption of radon from the lungs to blood. Dosimetric calculations gave a dose conversion coefficient of 15 mSv/WLM, which is higher than the value 5 mSv/WLM derived from epidemiological studies. ICRP stated that dosimetric models should only be used for comparison of doses in the human lungs resulted from different exposure conditions.     

Study on radon and radon progeny in some living rooms

In the first part of this work, the potential alpha energy concentration (PAEC) of radon progeny, the equilibrium factor (F), the activity concentration of 222Rn gas (Co) and the unattached fraction (fp), were determined in 15 living rooms at El-Minia City, Egypt. The activity size distribution of (214)Pb was measured by using a low pressure Berner impactor. Based on the parameters of that distribution the total effective dose through the human lung was evaluated by using a dosimetric model calculation of ICRP. An electrostatic precipitation method was used for the determination of 222Rn gas concentration. The mean activity concentration of 222Rn gas (Co) was found to be 123 +/- 22 Bq m(-3). A mean unattached fraction (fp) of 0.11 +/- 0.02 was obtained at a mean aerosol particle concentration (Z) of (3.0 +/- 0.21) x 10(3) cm(-3). The mean equilibrium factor (F) was determined to be 0.35 +/- 0.03. The mean PAEC was found to be 37 +/- 8.1 Bq m(-3). The activity size distribution of (214)Pb shows mean activity median diameter of 290 nm with mean geometric standard deviation (sigma) of 2.45. At a total deposition fraction of approximately 23% the total effective dose to the lung was determined to be approximately 1.2 mSv. The second part of this paper deals with a study of natural radionuclide contents of samples collected from the building materials of those rooms under investigation given in part one of this paper. Analyses were performed in Marinelli beakers with a gamma multichannel analyser provided with a NaI(Tl) detector. The samples have revealed the presence of the uranium-radium and thorium radioisotopes as well as (40)K. Nine gamma-lines of the natural radioisotopes that correspond to 212Pb, 214Pb, 214Bi, 228Ac, 40K and 208Tl were detected and measured. The activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K were determined with mean specific activities of 65 +/- 22, 35 +/- 12 and 150 +/- 60 Bq kg(-1), respectively. These activities amount to a radium equivalent (Ra(eq)) of 126 Bq kg(-1) and to a mean value of external hazard index of 0.34.     

Sensitive method for the determination of F attached to aerosol particles in a PET centre

A new grab sampling method has been developed for the measurement of ¹⁸F attached to aerosol particles. It is based on direct β-counting of filtered aerosol sample over successive time intervals by an end-window Geiger–Müller counter. The effect of the progeny of radon and thoron on the β-counting rate is separated by analysing the decay curve. The defined solid angle absolute counting was used to evaluate the efficiencies for ¹⁸F and for the progeny of radon and thoron one by one. Absolute activity concentration of ¹⁸F can be determined with less than 10% systematic error. Glass-fibre filter and high sampling flow rate are applied, leading to a detection limit for ¹⁸F of less than 1 Bq m⁻³. The method was tested under different circumstances in the PET centre of University of Debrecen, Hungary.     

Prediction of lung cancer risk for radon exposures based on cellular alpha particle hits

To explore the role of the multiplicity of cellular hits by radon progeny alpha particles for lung cancer incidence, the number of single and multiple alpha particle hits were computed for basal and secretory cells in the bronchial epithelium of human airway bifurcations. Hot spots of alpha particle hits were observed at the branching points of bronchial airway bifurcations. The effect of single and multiple alpha particle intersections of bronchial cells during a given exposure period, selected from a Poisson distribution, on lung cancer risk were simulated by a transformation frequency--tissue response model, based on experimentally observed cellular transformation and survival functions. Calculations of lung cancer risk at low radon exposure levels suggest that single hits produce a linear-dose response relationship, while the superposition of single and increasing multiple hits at higher exposure levels may also be approximated by a quasi-linear dose-effect curve. The simulations predict a carcinogenic enhancement effect for radon progeny accumulations at bifurcation branching sites, which may increase current risk estimates.     

Deposition and clearance for radon progeny in the human respiratory tract

In vivo counting of 214Pb was conducted to estimate the deposition and retention of radon progeny in the human respiratory tract. Two volunteer subjects were exposed to high radon concentrations. After the exposures, activity deposited in the extrathoracic (ET) region for each subject was measured using a NaI(Tl) detector. According to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) model, a reference value for particle transport rate from ET2 to the GI tract is 100 d(-1) (half-time, 10 min). The effective half-time of 214Pb deposited in the ET region was calculated for pure nose and mouth breathers, using the ICRP reference transport rate. While the measured half-times for nose breathers were generally consistent with the calculated values, those for mouth breathers were significantly larger than the calculated values. The results indicated that the particle transport rate from ET2 to the GI tract was much smaller than the reference value in the ICRP model.     

Fraction of the positive 218Po and 214Pb clusters in indoor air

The fraction of the positively charged unattached radon decay products, 218Po and 214Pb in indoor air was determined by model calculations. The results of the calculations were confirmed by measurements in a test chamber (volume: 8 m3). The fraction of both radionuclides depends on the attachment parameter (S(1)) and the neutralisation rate (nu) in room air. The total removal parameter S1 = lambda1 + v + q(f) + X = lambda1 C1f/C0 considers the attachment rate to aerosol particles (X), plate-out rate to room surfaces (q(f)) and the ventilation rate (nu) (lambda1: decay constant of 218Po). The S1-value of room can be determined by measurement of the concentration of the unattached 218Po clusters (C1f) and radon (C0). The neutralisation rate (nu) in environmental air depends mainly on the ion production rate. The influence of the relative humidity in the range 30-95% (temperature: 20 degrees C) is negligible. In addition, equal neutralisation rates for 218Po and 214Pb could be derived. In room air with ion production rates between 5 and 500 nC kg(-1) h(-1) mainly generated by the alpha emitters of radon, thoron and their short-lived decay products, the fractions for positive 218Po clusters vary between 55 and 17% and for 214Pb clusters between 53 and 14%. For a typical average concentration of radon (50 Bq m(-3)) and thoron (10 Bq m(-3)) in homes, 48% of 218Po clusters and 45% of 214Pb clusters are positively charged.     

Performance of the first Japanese large-scale facility for radon inhalation experiments with small animals

A radon test facility for small animals was developed in order to increase the statistical validity of differences of the biological response in various radon environments. This paper illustrates the performances of that facility, the first large-scale facility of its kind in Japan. The facility has a capability to conduct approximately 150 mouse-scale tests at the same time. The apparatus for exposing small animals to radon has six animal chamber groups with five independent cages each. Different radon concentrations in each animal chamber group are available. Because the first target of this study is to examine the in vivo behaviour of radon and its effects, the major functions to control radon and to eliminate thoron were examined experimentally. Additionally, radon progeny concentrations and their particle size distributions in the cages were also examined experimentally to be considered in future projects.     

Long-term measurements of thoron, its airborne progeny and radon in 205 dwellings in Ireland

Long-term (circa 3 months) simultaneous measurements of indoor concentrations of thoron gas, airborne thoron progeny and radon were made using passive alpha track detectors in 205 dwellings in Ireland during the period 2007-09. Thoron progeny concentrations were measured using passive deposition monitors designed at the National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Japan, whereas thoron gas concentrations were measured using Raduet detectors (Radosys, Budapest). Radon concentrations were measured in these dwellings by means of NRPB/SSI type alpha track radon detectors as normally used by the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland (RPII). The concentration of thoron gas ranged from <1 to 174 Bq m(-3) with an arithmetic mean (AM) of 22 Bq m(-3). The concentration of radon gas ranged from 4 to 767 Bq m(-3) with an AM of 75 Bq m(-3). For radon, the estimated annual doses were 0.1 (min), 19.2 (max) and 1.9 (AM) mSv y(-1). The concentration of thoron progeny ranged from <0.1 to 3.8 Bq m(-3) [equilibrium equivalent thoron concentration (EETC)] with an AM of 0.47 Bq m(-3) (EETC). The corresponding estimated annual doses were 2.9 (max) and 0.35 (mean) mSv y(-1). In 14 or 7% of the dwellings, the estimated doses from thoron progeny exceeded those from radon.     

Survey of radon and thoron in homes of Indian Himalaya

Measurements of radon, thoron and their progeny were carried out in some houses from Garhwal and Kumaun Himalayas of India using a LR-115 plastic track detector. The measurements were made in various residential houses of the area at a height of 2.5 m above the ground level using a twin chamber radon dosemeter, which can record the values of radon, thoron and their progeny separately. The concentrations of radon and thoron in these homes were found to vary from 11 to 191 and 1 to 156 Bq m(-3), respectively. The equilibrium factor between radon and progeny varies from 0.02 to 0.90, with an average of 0.26 for the region. The resulting dose rate due to radon, thoron and their decay products was found to vary from 0.02 to 0.84 μSv h(-1) with an arithmetic mean of 0.27 μSv h(-1). A detailed analysis of the distribution of radon, thoron and their decay products inside a house is also reported. The observed dose rates due to radon, thoron and progeny were found somewhat higher but well below the international recommendations.