Wind energy development and its environmental impact: A review

Wind energy, commonly recognized to be a clean and environmentally friendly renewable energy resource that can reduce our dependency on fossil fuels, has developed rapidly in recent years. Its mature technology and comparatively low cost make it promising as an important primary energy source in the future. However, there are potential environmental impacts due to the installation and operation of the wind turbines that cannot be ignored. This paper aims to provide an overview of world wind energy scenarios, the current status of wind turbine development, development trends of offshore wind farms, and the environmental and climatic impact of wind farms. The wake effect of wind turbines and modeling studies regarding this effect are also reviewed.     

Full-energy-chain analysis of greenhouse gas emissions for solar thermal electric power generation systems

Renewable energy generation of electricity is advocated as a means of reducing carbon dioxide emissions associated with the generation from fossil fuels. Whilst it is true that renewable sources do not generate significant carbon dioxide whilst producing electricity, as with fossil-fuelled plants they do embody significant emissions in their materials of construction. The “full-chain” environmental impacts of wind, hydro, solar-thermal and photovoltaic conversion are quite different and the likely trend in future reduction of embodied energy of next generation systems reflects the relative maturity of each technology. There has been much recent development of solar thermal electricity generation options for which there is a wide divergence in embodied CO₂ emissions.     

Wind power potential in Turkey and Akhisar case study

Wind energy potential in various parts of Turkey is becoming economical due to reductions in the wind turbine costs, and in fossil fuel atmospheric pollution. The global change program imposes restrictions for use of alternative renewable and environmentally friendly energy sources. Wind energy is among such energy potentials and its practical and economical use gain significance day by day. The first wind energy turbine site investigation and wind power application possibility have been presented for the Akhisar area within the eastern provinces of Turkey. Different wind turbine technologies are assessed according to the local wind speed variations. Locally and technologically suitable wind turbines are selected. Finally their locations are decided by expert views and field measurements with the usage of well known WASP software. It is calculated that a minimum of 31436 MWh/year wind can be generated in this site. In the calculations 10% error possibility is allowed.     

Wind energy status in renewable electrical energy production in Turkey

Main electrical energy sources of Turkey are thermal and hydraulic. Most of the thermal sources are derived from natural gas. Turkey imports natural gas; therefore, decreasing usage of natural gas is very important for both economical and environmental aspects. Because of disadvantages of fossil fuels, renewable energy sources are getting importance for sustainable energy development and environmental protection. Among the renewable sources, Turkey has very high wind energy potential. The estimated wind power capacity of Turkey is about 83,000 MW while only 10,000 MW of it seems to be economically feasible to use. Start 2009, the total installed wind power capacity of Turkey was only 4.3% of its total economical wind power potential (433 MW). However, the strong development of wind energy in Turkey is expected to continue in the coming years. In this study, Turkey's installed electric power capacity, electric energy production is investigated and also Turkey current wind energy status is examined.     

Sustainable energy planning based on a stand-alone hybrid renewableenergy/hydrogen power system: Application in Karpathos island, Greece

This study presents the sustainable planning of a renewables-based energy system, which aims to fulfil the electric needs of the island by replacing the existing diesel generators with new wind farms, photovoltaic installations and hydrogen production systems. Electric system design and least cost planning analysis were concluded using historic data from both demand and supply sides. An optimal “sustainable island” scheme should ensure 100% use of renewable energy resources for power generation, while hydrogen production is ideal for covering storage and transportation needs. Due to its morphology and scale, Karpathos applies perfectly for wind and solar energy systems, due to increased solar resource (about 1790 kWh/m².year of global irradiation) and high wind potential (average of 9 m/s in specific locations). Therefore, this case study examines an increase in RES penetration up to 20% in the electric energy mixture, a hydrogen production plan just for the needs of transport and a more aggressive, 100% renewables scheme that ensures a self-fulfilling energy system based on indigenous renewable resources.     

Wind energy status in electrical energy production of Turkey

Main electrical energy sources of Turkey are thermal (lignite, natural gas, coal, fuel oil, etc.) and hydraulic. Most of the thermal sources are derived from natural gas. Turkey imports natural gas; therefore, decreasing usage of natural gas is very important for both economical and environmental aspects. Because of disadvantages of fossil fuels, renewable energy sources are getting importance for sustainable energy development and environmental protection. Among the renewable sources, Turkey has very high wind energy potential. However the installed wind power capacity is only 0.22% of total economical wind potential. In this study, Turkey's installed electric power capacity, electric energy production is investigated and also Turkey current wind energy status is examined.     

On the wind energy in Turkey

Increase in negative effects of fossil fuels on the environment has forced many countries, including Turkey, to use renewable energy sources. Today, clean, domestic and renewable energy is commonly accepted as the key for future life, not only for Turkey but also for the world. As wind energy is an alternative clean energy source compared to the fossil fuels that pollute the atmosphere, systems that convert wind energy to electricity have developed rapidly. Turkey is an energy importing country, more than half of the energy requirement has been supplied by imports. Turkey's domestic fossil fuel resources are extremely limited. In addition, Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of wind power. In this context, renewable energy resources appear to be one of the most efficient and effective solutions for sustainable energy development and environmental pollution prevention in Turkey. Since wind energy will be used more and more in the future, its current potential, usage, and assessment in Turkey is the focus of the present study. The paper not only presents a review of the potential and utilization of the wind power in Turkey but also provides some guidelines for policy makers.     

Optimization of energy production system in the Dodecanese Islands

The ongoing depletion of the fossil fuels and the dependency of the economies on them have made the need for new sources of energy more obvious. Renewable energy sources (RES) can ensure the sustainable development of the communities, and especially of those in which RES are in abundance. This study deals with the exploitation of RES in the Dodecanese Islands. Specifically, it is examined the optimum percentage by which the renewable sources can participate in the energy production system. Three different scenarios are examined. The first scenario considers that the existent system should be used less than 75% for environmental reasons, in the second scenario, a minimization of the electricity production cost is sought without any environmental constraints, while in the third scenario, it is considered that the RES’ participation in the electricity production would be 30% at most according to the current legislation. The environmental impacts from the energy production are quantified and a comparison is made between the impacts resulting from the existing system and the system found from the first scenario, because this is the scenario with the highest penetration of the RES to the energy production system.     

Analysis of wind potential and characteristics in North Aegean, Greece

Wind data for the years 2000 and 2001 were analyzed to evaluate the wind potential of the Mikra–Thessaloniki, region in northern Greece. The objective of the analysis was the establishment of the required criteria to answer the question: “are the renewable energy sources capable to maintain the operation of a desalination pilot unit?” The polar diagrams of the wind (wind speed, frequency, direction), the mean monthly and annual wind speed profile and the Weibull distributions for the years 2000 and 2001 are presented.     

The ring of fire : The use of geothermal energy in Indonesia

For Indonesia's myriad smaller islands, as well as for rural locations that cannot be economically connected to the grid, electric power development strategy is increasingly seen more in terms of the country's abundant renewable energy resources. Hydro, biomass, solar and wind energy are being explored for their potential to generate power, to lessen national dependence on fossil fuels. Expert attention today is focused on exploiting the huge geothermal potential of the spectacular mountain ranges in Java and Sumatra, volcanic Indonesia's so-called “Ring of Fire”. Richard Mogg, Lanna Blue Bangkok reports on geothermal energy production and use in the region.     

Comparative assessment of hydrogen production methods from renewable and non-renewable sources

In this study, we present a comparative environmental impact assessment of possible hydrogen production methods from renewable and non-renewable sources with a special emphasis on their application in Turkey. It is aimed to study and compare the performances of hydrogen production methods and assess their economic, social and environmental impacts, The methods considered in this study are natural gas steam reforming, coal gasification, water electrolysis via wind and solar energies, biomass gasification, thermochemical water splitting with a Cu–Cl and S–I cycles, and high temperature electrolysis. Environmental impacts (global warming potential, GWP and acidification potential, AP), production costs, energy and exergy efficiencies of these eight methods are compared. Furthermore, the relationship between plant capacity and hydrogen production capital cost is studied. The social cost of carbon concept is used to present the relations between environmental impacts and economic factors. The results indicate that thermochemical water splitting with the Cu–Cl and S–I cycles become more environmentally benign than the other traditional methods in terms of emissions. The options with wind, solar and high temperature electrolysis also provide environmentally attractive results. Electrolysis methods are found to be least attractive when production costs are considered. Therefore, increasing the efficiencies and hence decreasing the costs of hydrogen production from solar and wind electrolysis bring them forefront as potential options. The energy and exergy efficiency comparison study indicates the advantages of biomass gasification over other methods. Overall rankings show that thermochemical Cu–Cl and S–I cycles are primarily promising candidates to produce hydrogen in an environmentally benign and cost-effective way.     

Comparative life-cycle assessment of a small wind turbine for residential off-grid use

As the popularity of renewable energy systems grows, small wind turbines are becoming a common choice for off-grid household power. However, the true benefits of such systems over the traditional internal combustion systems are unclear. This study employs a life-cycle assessment methodology in order to directly compare the environmental impacts, net-energy inputs, and life-cycle cost of two systems: a stand-alone small wind turbine system and a single-home diesel generator system. The primary focus for the investigation is the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) including CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O. These emissions are calculated over the life-cycle of the two systems which provide the same amount of energy to a small off-grid home over a twenty-year period. The results show a considerable environmental benefit for small-scale wind power. The wind generator system offered a 93% reduction of GHG emissions when compared to the diesel system. Furthermore, the diesel generator net-energy input was over 200 MW, while the wind system produced an electrical energy output greater than its net-energy input. Economically, the conclusions were less clear. The assumption was made that diesel fuel cost over the next twenty years was based on May 2008 prices, increasing only in proportion to inflation. As such, the net-present cost of the wind turbine system was 14% greater than the diesel system. However, a larger model wind turbine would likely benefit from the effects of the ‘economy of scale,’ producing superior results both economically and environmentally.     

Solar absorption system for water desalination

There is growing international concern about pollution caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and emissions of oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen from fossil fuel sources. This has stimulated research to develop “environmentally-friendly” systems powered by renewable energies. This paper examines the application of a novel absorption system for water desalination. The absorption system could be powered by a renewable energy source (e.g. solar energy) or by a hybrid method (e.g. solar energy and natural gas). The absorption system offers several attractive features, including a high performance ratio, no pre-treatment required, extraction of water at low temperatures, absence of scaling, and minimal corrosion. Water is used as the working fluid and so the system is attractive on environmental grounds. The paper describes computer modelling of the system and its potential applications.     

Evaluation of electricity generation and energy cost of wind energy conversion systems (WECSs) in Central Turkey

The negative effects of non-renewable fossil fuels have forced scientists to draw attention to clean energy sources which are both environmentally more suitable and renewable. Although Turkey enjoys fairly high wind energy potential, an investigation and exploitation of this source is still below the desired level. In this study which is a preliminary study on wind energy cost in Central Anatolian-Turkey, the wind energy production using time-series approach and the economic evaluation of various wind energy conversion systems (WECSs) enjoying the 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 100 and 150 kW rated power size using the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) method for the seven different locations in Central Turkey were estimated. In addition, effects of escalation ratio of operation and maintenance cost and annual mean speed on LCOE are taken into account. The wind speed data for a period between 2000 and 2006 years were taken from Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS). According to the result of the calculations, it is shown that the WECS of capacity 150 kW produce the energy output 120,978 kWh per year in the Case-A (Pinarbasi) for hub height 30 m and also the LCOE varies in the range of 0.29–30.0 $/kWh for all WECS considered.     

Renewable energy market conditions and barriers in Turkey

Decentralized wind, hydropower, biogas and biomass, geothermal, solar thermal and solar electricity energy systems are the most commonly found renewable energy technologies promoted for rural energy supply within sustainable developments programs. They are, therefore, seen to have a central place in the practice of sustainable development and in allowing less development countries to bypass the environmentally damaging fossil fuel intensive paths made by industrialized countries. On the political front, many less development countries are critical of pressure on them to adopt environmental energy technologies.Turkey is situated the meeting point of three continents (Asia, Europe and Africa) and stands as a bridge between Asia and Europe. The country is located in southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia. As Turkey’s economy has expanded in recent years, the consumption of primary energy has increased. Presently in order to increase the energy production from domestic energy resources, decrease the use of fossil fuels as well as reduce of green house gas emissions different renewable energy sources are used for energy production in Turkey. The share of energy production from renewable energy sources has increased during the last 10 years. Turkey must import most of the energy to meet her needs. Turkey also has a large potential for renewable energies. The lack of knowledge about renewable energy technologies by most policy-makers, potential consumers, and energy firm managers has played against renewable energy developments. The paper presents renewable energy used in Turkey and Europe Union and evaluation of the market conditions and barriers of renewable energy use in Turkey.     

Renewislands—Renewable energy solutions for islands

Increase of the global energy demand and environmental problems relating to fossil energy utilization request the new energy sources to replace the traditional fossil fuels. With respect to energy production, most of the islands in European Union and in the other parts of the world, depend on importation, mainly from oil and its related products. The global development of renewable energy technologies can assure sustainable supply of power for islands. To overcome the limitation of the sources of renewable energy, hydrogen is utilized as a storage medium integrated with intermittent renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. This paper introduces the programme of “Renewislands—Renewable Energy Solutions for Islands”, the work tasks, details of the design of the activities to develop solutions integrating intermittent renewable energy supply (RES), fuel cell (FC) and hydrogen infrastructure to promote RES and innovative decentralized power systems penetration in islands; main results achieved in each work packages are presented; in addition, the development of intermittent renewable energy penetration in specific European Islands are reviewed briefly.     

Fuelwood: The “other” renewable energy source for Africa?

In recent years, increasing concerns over rising oil prices, supply shortfalls and the environmental impacts of fossil fuel use have fed growing interest in renewable energy sources for Sub-Saharan Africa. Although traditional biofuels already enjoy widespread popularity, their use has often been actively discouraged due to the lingering influence of “fuelwood crisis” era narratives. In particular, urban fuelwood consumption is frequently portrayed as a cause of environmental degradation leading to energy insecurity among low-income households, especially where the resource is commercialized. Such views have had significant influence among policy makers, often resulting in repressive forestry legislation. In contrast, however, a number of researchers have demonstrated that wood energy dependence is often not a significant cause of deforestation and can provide important livelihood opportunities. This article reassesses urban fuelwood sourcing and its impacts using a recent case study conducted by the authors in Maun, Botswana and results previously reported in the literature. Findings indicate that although harvesting is unregulated, its impacts are significantly mitigated by collectors' strong preferences for source sites with abundant dead wood, low competition and recognized access rights. As well, fuelwood vending is found to provide critical support to rural incomes and a key source of low-cost urban energy. As such, the benefits of fuelwood use and avoidance of negative effects will most effectively be achieved by decentralised management approaches that build on local institutions and understandings of the resource.     

On the role of surface roughness in the aerodynamic performance and energy conversion of horizontal wind turbine blades: a review

Renewable energy is one of the main pillars of sustainable development, especially in developing economies. Increasing energy demand and the limitation of fossil fuel reserves make the use of renewable energy essential for sustainable development. Wind energy is considered to be one of the most important resources of renewable energy. In North African countries, such as Egypt, wind energy has an enormous potential; however, it faces quite a number of technical challenges related to the performance of wind turbines in the Saharan environment. Seasonal sand storms affect the performance of wind turbines in many ways, one of which is increasing the wind turbine aerodynamic resistance through the increase of blade surface roughness. The power loss because of blade surface deterioration is significant in wind turbines. The surface roughness of wind turbine blades deteriorates because of several environmental conditions such as ice or sand. This paper is the first review on the topic of surface roughness effects on the performance of horizontal‐axis wind turbines. The review covers the numerical simulation and experimental studies as well as discussing the present research trends to develop a roadmap for better understanding and improvement of wind turbine performance in deleterious environments. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Wind energy resource assessment in Madrid region

The “Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid” (Autonomous Community of Madrid, in the following Madrid Region), is a region located at the geographical centre of the Iberian Peninsula. Its area is 8.028 km², and its population about five million people. The Department of Economy and Technological Innovation of the Madrid Region, together with some organizations dealing on energy saving and other research institutions have elaborated an Energy Plan for the 2004–12 period. As a part of this work, the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory of the Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineers of the Polytechnic University of Madrid has carried out the assessment of the wind energy resources [Crespo A, Migoya E, Gómez Elvira R. La energía eólica en Madrid. Potencialidad y prospectiva. Plan energético de la Comunidad de Madrid, 2004–2012. Madrid: Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid; 2004]; using for this task the WAsP program (Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program), and the own codes, UPMORO (code to study orography effects) and UPMPARK (code to study wake effects in wind parks). Different kinds of data have been collected about climate, topography, roughness of the land, environmentally protected areas, town and village distribution, population density, main facilities and electric power supply. The Spanish National Meteorological Institute has nine wind measurement stations in the region, but only four of them have good and reliable temporary wind data, with time measurement periods that are long enough to provide representative correlations among stations. The Observed Wind Climates of the valid meteorological stations have been made. The Wind Atlas and the resource grid have been calculated, especially in the high wind resource areas, selecting appropriate measurements stations and using criteria based on proximity, similarity and ruggedness index. Some areas cannot be used as a wind energy resource mainly because they have environmental regulation or, in some cases, are very close to densely populated towns. In the finally selected areas, it is assumed that there are hypothetical wind farms, consisting of 2 MW turbines in appropriate configurations, in which the turbines are about 11 diameters apart. Its energy production will give an estimation of the wind energy potential of the Madrid Region.     

A survey of tourist attitudes to renewable energy supply in Australian hotel accommodation

The results of a survey are presented describing the attitudes of Australian tourists to micro-generation renewable energy supply (RES) for hotel accommodation. The average positive response rate to all questions was above 50%, implying a desire by tourists for environmentally friendly accommodation and renewable energy supply. Tourists indicated that they perceived RES to be reliable and expressed a willingness to cooperate with RES initiatives and possible resultant inconveniences. However, there were mixed opinions with regard to consumer willingness to pay for the product. Of the 49% of respondents who were willing to pay extra for RES, 92% replied they would pay between 1% and 5%. Analysis of the variation in response due to accommodation type revealed a ‘city’ hotel versus ‘eco-resort’ difference. Likewise, a breakdown of responses according to country of origin indicated that Australians had a more positive attitude to RES than overseas visitors, including Japanese and Americans. While no variation in response was detected according to gender, age had a measurable bearing on response, with older guests returning a higher positive response rate. Visual queue questions querying aesthetic opinions and ‘not-in-my-backyard’ (NIMBY) attitude to RES revealed that there was virtually no opposition to photovoltaics. Opinions regarding wind energy conversion systems (WECS) varied with type and location, with rooftop WECS receiving more acceptance than stand-alone varieties. A high level of visual acceptance was shown by respondents for onshore wind farms located close to a tourist accommodation centre, with less enthusiasm for offshore farms. A strong NIMBY attitude to WECS was not observed among Australian or local respondents.