A parametric, experimental analysis of conical vortices on curved roofs of low-rise buildings

Different methods to reduce the high suction caused by conical vortices have been reported in the literature: vertical parapets, either solid or porous, placed at the roof edges being the most analysed configuration. Another method for alleviating the high suction peaks due to conical vortices is the use of some non-standard parapet configuration like cantilever parapets. In this paper the influence of roof curvature on the conical vortex pattern appearing on a curved roof (Fig. 1) when subject to oblique winds is experimentally analysed by testing the mean pressure distribution on the curved roofs of low-rise building models in a wind tunnel. Also, the efficiency of cantilever parapets to reduce mean suction loads on curved roofs is experimentally checked. Very high suction loads have been measured on curved roofs, the magnitude of these high suction loads being significantly decreased when cantilever parapets are used. Thus, the suitability of these parapets to reduce wind pressure loads on curved roofs is demonstrated.     

Influence of an upstream building on the wind-induced mean suction on the flat roof of a low-rise building

The effect of an upstream building on the suction forces on the flat roof of a low-rise building placed in the wake of the former is analyzed. The analysis has been performed by wind tunnel testing of a flat roof, low-rise building model equipped with pressure taps on the roof and different block-type buildings (only configurations where the upstream building is as high or higher than the downstream one are considered in this paper). The influence of the distance between both buildings on the wind loads on the downstream building roof is analyzed, as well as the height of the upstream one and the wind angle of incidence. Experimental results reveal that the wind load increases as the relative height of the upstream building increases, the wind load being highest for intermediate distances between buildings, when a passage between them is formed.     

Wind effects of parapets on low buildings: Part 3. Parapet loads

As part of the study on the effects of parapets on wind-induced loads on low buildings, measurements of the pressures on parapet surfaces have been carried out. Pressures were measured on both the exterior and interior for several parapet heights, h=0.46, 0.9, 1.8, 2.7 m, and building heights, H=4.6, 9.1, 18 m, for both a uniform perimetric parapet and an isolated parapet on one wall. These data were used to quantify the local (component and cladding) and structural wind loads on the parapets. It was found that the worst structural load coefficients over all wind angles are approximately constant with h and H because of opposing trends of the pressures on the interior and exterior parapet surfaces. That is, the loads increase on the interior surface with H (as they do for roof loads), while decreasing on the exterior surface. The current structural load coefficients prescribed by the ASCE 7-02 capture this well for the building configurations considered. However, the suction component and cladding loads on the interior surface of isolated parapets are not well captured by the code.     

Wind effects of parapets on low buildings: Part 2. Structural loads

The present paper, Part 2 in a four part series, focuses on the effects of solid, perimetric parapets on the wind-induced structural loads on low-rise buildings. Roof and wall pressures were measured at more than 500 locations simultaneously for five parapet heights (h=0, 0.46, 0.9, 1.8 and 2.7 m in equivalent full-scale dimensions) and three building heights (H=4.6, 9.1 and 18.3 m) with plan dimensions 31.1 by 61.6 m and a on 12 gable roof slope. The data were obtained in simulated open country and suburban terrain conditions, at a scale of 1:100, in a boundary layer wind tunnel. It was observed that the distance from the eaves edge to the reattachment point for winds normal to the wall increases from x/H∼0.4 for h/(H+h)=0 to x/H=1.8 for h/(H+h)=0.23. While mean and fluctuating point pressure distributions tend to decrease in magnitude with h, the increased areas of separated flow lead to increased loads for interior frames with the taller parapets.     

Wind effects of parapets on low buildings: Part 4. Mitigation of corner loads with alternative geometries

This is the fourth paper in a series on the wind effects of parapets on low-rise buildings. This part focuses on alternative parapet geometries which can mitigate local (component and cladding) loading due to the formation of corner vortices. It was found that spoilers and porous perimetric parapets significantly reduce the loads for all areas in the corner, edge and interior zones considered. For solid parapets, raising the corner, or putting a slot in the corner are also beneficial when compared to uniform, continuous parapets. Removing the corner of a continuous parapet also lowers the loads as compared to isolated (single) parapets which end at the side wall, indicating that shortened isolated parapets could also be beneficial.     

Wind effects of parapets on low buildings: Part 1. Basic aerodynamics and local loads

This is the first paper in a series on the effects of parapets on the wind-induced loads on low buildings. Part 1 focuses on the basic aerodynamic effects of parapets and the local (components and cladding) loads. Wind tunnel data were obtained from about 700 pressure taps in the area of a corner panel of 3.7 m×7.6 m (equivalent full-scale dimensions) for several parapet heights and configurations. Significant downward loads were observed which exceed code values for all parapet heights. This may be significant when combined with other loads (such as snow or water). It was also found that parapets alter the suction loads on the roof by changing the location of the corner vortex relative to the roof, for continuous perimetric parapets, and the type of vortex formed, for isolated (single wall) parapets. In the ASCE-defined interior region, the measured coefficients for component and cladding loads exceed those in the code for all parapets and areas examined. For the edge zone, the experimental coefficients for areas less than 1 m² exceed the code values (except for tall perimetric parapets). However, it was found that the component and cladding loads in the ASCE 7 adequately envelope the uplift caused by perimetric parapets in the corner zone for H=4.6 m, but not for isolated parapets, in particular for areas less than 1 m². It was also discussed that the ASCE 7 will be unconservative for larger eaves heights since H² is the correct normalizing factor for roof areas beneath the separated flow. Furthermore, the use of edge zone coefficients in the corner zone for h ?0.9 m should be changed to h/(H+h)?0.23 in the ASCE 7.     

Interpolation of pressure coefficients for low-rise buildings of different plan dimensions and roof slopes using artificial neural networks

Database-assisted design (DAD) is emerging as an important tool to design buildings for wind effects. However, there is a need for robust interpolation methods for pressure coefficients to extend the range of conditions beyond those in the aerodynamic database from wind tunnel experiments. An interpolation methodology, using artificial neural networks (ANN), was developed to include variable plan dimensions and roof slopes in the set of parameters considered in earlier interpolation studies. In addition to expanding the capabilities for interpolation, the new models improved predictions in the lee of the ridges for gable-roofed and low-rise buildings.     

Stationary vortices attached to flat roofs

This paper treats the topic of a conical vortex attached to a plane horizontal surface. Data have been collected from measurements on freely suspended cubes in a wind-tunnel. Data are analyzed and some vortex properties derived. The pressure coefficient is found to decrease as the inverse of the square root of the distance from the corner. Experimental results are used to construct an analytical model of the conical flow derived from a solution to the non-linear vorticity transport equation and the resulting flow is predicted. This flow is used to calculate the pressure suction on the attached surface. An application would be pressure on flat roofs of high-rise buildings subjected to an adverse wind.     

低层坡屋面房屋风荷载特性风洞试验研究

对低层双坡屋面和四坡屋面建筑进行了风洞试验研究,考虑了屋面形式、屋面坡度、来流方向和挑檐长度等不同因素对屋面风压分布的影响,分析了屋面平均和脉动风压系数的分布特性。结果表明,0°风向角（来流垂直吹向屋脊）、屋面坡度为30°时,迎风屋面屋檐及屋脊附近形成较高负压,迎风屋面风压系数呈环状分布;屋面坡度为15°时,迎风屋面风压系数呈阶梯状分布。屋面体型系数受风向角、屋面坡度和屋面形式的影响较大：0°风向角、双坡屋面模型中,15°屋面坡度迎风屋面体型系数为30°屋面坡度的2.76倍;四坡屋面模型中,15°屋面坡度迎风屋面体型系数为30°屋面坡度的228倍;背风屋面体型系数受屋面坡度的影响较小;0°和45°风向角下,对于15°和30°屋面坡度,当屋面坡度相同,屋面形式由双坡改为四坡时,迎风屋面的体型系数绝对值有所增大,屋面更容易受力破坏,但对背风屋面的影响较小。     

Interference effects on wind loads on low-rise hip roof buildings

The Natural wind in the wind tunnel was simulated at the University of Roorkee (India) on the basis of full/model-scale comparison. For this, the Texas Tech University (TTU) building model was fabricated on a geometric scale of 1:50 and tested in the simulated wind for comparison of the pressures with full-scale values. A hip roof building model (geometric scale 1:50) of plan dimensions 280 mm×140 mm×58 mm (eave height) with 30° roof slope was selected as the test building (T.B.) so as to examine interference with a similar building as well as three similar buildings placed on the upstream side at fifteen different locations (Fig. 2). A quadrant portion of the model roof was divided into ten different zones to see the effect of interference at critical roof positions. Significant effects have been observed.     

低矮房屋迎风屋面局部风压特性研究

基于尺寸比为1.5:1:1(长:宽:高)的低矮房屋的风洞试验数据,分析了9类不同坡角的低矮房屋在5个不同风向的风场环境下,迎风屋面屋檐、屋脊等局部区域测点的平均、脉动及峰值风压系数.通过对比低矮房屋在不同坡角、不同风向作用下屋面的风压变化规律,总结了坡角及风向对低矮房屋屋面局部风压的影响规律.结果表明,低矮房屋在45....     

风致屋面积雪分布风洞试验研究

为了预测屋面积雪分布,对一典型阶梯形屋面和两种双坡屋面进行了积雪分布风洞试验研究。首先对流场进行了测量,然后进行屋面积雪分布试验,测量了不同时间内屋面雪深分布,考察了风速、风向对屋面积雪分布的影响,并对屋面上粒子质量流率进行了分析。结果表明,运动粒子使表面附近的流场湍流度降低,流场有效气动粗糙长度与摩擦速度平方成正比;阶梯形屋面在风向角为0°时,雪深分布与观测结果基本一致,斜向风时,雪深分布严重不均匀,特别在风向角135°时,最小雪深系数为0,最大雪深系数达1.7;双坡屋面在风向角0°时背风屋面局部产生较多沉积,坡度10°的双坡屋面最大雪深系数达1.6,坡度20°的双坡屋面最大雪深系数为1.2;屋面上平均质量流率与风速呈线性关系,表明屋面上粒子质量输运率按摩擦速度三次方增加。     

Effect of building length on wind loads on low-rise buildings with a steep roof pitch

A wind tunnel model study was carried out on long, low-rise buildings with a steep roof pitch to determine the effect of the length-to-span aspect ratio on the external wind pressure distributions. The study showed a significant increase in the magnitude of the negative pressure coefficients on the leeward roof and wall, with an increase in aspect ratio, for oblique approach winds. These large suction pressures also generate large design wind load effects on the frames near the gable-end. The 1989 edition of the Australian standard for wind loads, AS 1170.2-1989 was found to underestimate the wind loads on steep pitch gable-roof buildings of aspect ratio greater than 3, on areas near the windward gable-end, and hence the critical bending moments in the supporting structural frames. The current Australian/New Zealand wind load standard, AS/NZS 1170.2-2002 specifies increased negative pressure coefficients on the leeward half of high pitch roof buildings, and critical bending moments in the supporting frames calculated from these distributions agree quite well with values obtained from the wind tunnel study. However, other major standards severely underestimate the critical bending moments, and the effective pressure coefficients producing those bending moments, especially on the leeward roof slope.     

局部受损低矮房屋平均风压特性试验研究

通过风洞试验对村镇地区常见的带有硬山搁檩的双坡屋面风压规律进行研究,讨论了房屋在完全封闭、门窗洞口打开以及屋面开洞三种情况下的屋面外部、内部平均风压系数在不同方向角下的分布特性。试验结果表明:硬山搁檩双坡屋面在风向角为50°,60°时,外屋面角部易破坏;屋檐下部的风压系数随屋面坡度的改变而改变;门窗开洞时内屋面风压会加大屋面荷载;屋面开洞对降低屋面风荷载起到有利作用。     

大跨度曲面屋盖风压分布特性的试验研究

通过某机场航站楼的刚性模型风洞试验研究,得到了上下屋盖表面的平均、脉动风压系数,对其风压分布特性进行了研究。结果表明:上表面屋盖主要呈现负压,在屋盖迎风面边缘出现较大气流分离;下表面屋盖迎风面出现正压,背风面主要为负压,风压系数变化梯度较大,风荷载特性更加复杂。     

ILES of flow over low-rise buildings: Influence of inflow conditions on the quality of the mean pressure distribution prediction

The paper presents an analysis of the deformation of the horizontal velocity profile in the flow approaching low-rise buildings for large eddy simulation on coarse grids. Build-up of velocity near the ground is observed as a consequence of momentum transfer from the outer flow to the ground level due to the fluctuating flow field. As a remedy, reduction of the turbulence intensity at the inflow boundary of the computational domain with respect to the experimental values is studied. The observation is that accurate prediction of the mean pressure distribution on the building surface is obtained when the inlet turbulence is reduced such that the deformation of the velocity profile in the flow approaching the building becomes small. For reliable mean pressure prediction, it is best not to reduce the inlet turbulence more than the minimum necessary to obtain a good velocity profile in the approaching flow.     

Wind pressures and buckling of cylindrical steel tanks with a conical roof

Tanks with a conical roof are studied in this paper under wind load, for a roof which is supported by rafters and columns. Buckling occurs in the form of deflections in the cylindrical shell and the buckling mode is localized in the windward region. Both bifurcation analysis and geometrically nonlinear analysis have been performed using finite element discretizations of the structure. The wind pressures have been obtained from wind tunnel experiments performed as part of the research, and have been obtained for tank geometries for which information was not previously available. The results show high imperfection sensitivity of tanks with a conical roof, and buckling loads for wind velocities in the same order as those expected to occur in the Caribbean region.     

龙卷风作用下双坡屋面风压分布试验研究

为研究龙卷风作用下双坡屋面的风压分布,根据龙卷风的风场特点,设计了用于建筑风工程的多变量可调节龙卷风塔,并进行双坡屋面刚性模型的风塔测压试验。龙卷风塔可调节塔体高度、导流板的方向角、导流板的高度,可以模拟类似龙卷风的涡旋风场。对龙卷风塔的气动测试表明：风场的风速分布、风压分布及总气压降和兰金涡流模型理论结果吻合良好,龙卷风塔的设计是可行的,可用于龙卷风荷载的相关研究。采用刚性模型的风塔测压试验,研究双坡屋面的风压分布,为了使研究成果具有代表性,针对3种典型的屋面坡角（15°,30°和60°）制作刚性屋面模型。试验结果表明：建筑物位于龙卷风中心（r=0.0R_m,r为建筑物距风场中心距离,R_m为最大旋转风速半径）时,屋面风荷载为吸力,且呈中心对称分布;建筑物位于r=1.0R_m时,屋面的吸力更大,且迎风面和背风面呈现出明显的区别;建筑物位于r=3.0R_m时,屋面的吸力均远小于前两种工况。     

新型抗风耗能装置在低矮房屋中布置方式的风洞试验研究

针对低矮房屋受台风作用极易损坏的问题,提出一种在低矮房屋上安装新型抗风耗能装置的防护方法。为寻求新型耗能装置的最优布置方式,使耗能装置效用最大化,针对将装置安装在双坡屋盖边缘、屋脊以及联合导流板工作等6种安装工况,通过风洞试验,研究抗风装置系统对屋面峰值风压和平均风压的影响,并对6种工况进行数值模拟分析,数值模拟结果与风洞试验一致。进行了耗能装置几何参数的优化研究,探讨了叶尖速比、叶轮根部安装角和叶根对叶尖扭角对耗能系数的影响。研究表明:安装耗能装置能有效预防屋面受风损坏;在迎风侧屋檐上部,结合导流板与抗风装置联合工作的方式能显著降低负风压对屋面结构的不利影响,这种安装方式在任一风向角下都显著降低了屋面平均风压系数极值(包括迎、背风面),降低幅度可达40%。     

武汉火车站站房屋盖和雨棚风洞试验研究

通过风洞试验研究了武汉火车站屋盖和雨棚的表面风荷载分布特征,着重分析了大型悬挑和镂空吊顶对风压分布的影响。屋盖的大型悬挑对局部风压影响很大,当来流斜吹时,悬挑局部区域的体型系数可达-2.2,而由于玻璃幕墙的阻挡作用,悬挑下方在某些风向会产生0.6的正压体型系数。下表面镂空时的上表面内侧风压和密闭时的下表面风压基本一致。在整体设计时,可按封闭模型的试验结果进行取值。通过对总受力和压力方差的统计分析,获得了不同风向下结构受风力作用的大小和离散程度,可为评估不利风向角提供重要参考依据。