Net pressures on the roof of a low-rise building with wall openings

This paper deals with an investigation of the characteristics of net pressures on two significant roof areas of a low-rise building with two different dominant wall openings. Wind tunnel boundary layer studies were conducted on a corner and a gable-end roof area of a 1:50 geometric scale model of the Texas Tech University (TTU) test building with a corner and a central wall opening. Mean and peak pressure coefficients, RMS values for the pressure coefficient fluctuations about their mean, as well as roof external pressure—internal pressure correlation coefficients were obtained for the entire 360° wind azimuth range. Frequency domain studies were also conducted for a few selected point roof pressure situations from which the frequency-dependent roof external pressure—internal pressure phase difference functions, root coherence functions and the spectral density functions were obtained. The results show that the mean, RMS and peak net pressure coefficients are particularly enhanced relative to the coefficients for the roof external pressure in the ±50° wind range. Zero-time-lag correlation coefficients of up to −0.64 were obtained in agreement with results from past studies, while root coherence values of up to 0.7 were also recorded. It is demonstrated that the provisions of both the Australian/New Zealand wind loading code—the AS/NZS1170.2:2002, and the American wind loading code—the ASCE7-02, are sometimes non-conservative in the prediction of mean and peak net roof pressure coefficients. These are believed to be due to non-conservative internal pressure coefficients allowed for in these codes.     

Effect of building length on wind loads on low-rise buildings with a steep roof pitch

A wind tunnel model study was carried out on long, low-rise buildings with a steep roof pitch to determine the effect of the length-to-span aspect ratio on the external wind pressure distributions. The study showed a significant increase in the magnitude of the negative pressure coefficients on the leeward roof and wall, with an increase in aspect ratio, for oblique approach winds. These large suction pressures also generate large design wind load effects on the frames near the gable-end. The 1989 edition of the Australian standard for wind loads, AS 1170.2-1989 was found to underestimate the wind loads on steep pitch gable-roof buildings of aspect ratio greater than 3, on areas near the windward gable-end, and hence the critical bending moments in the supporting structural frames. The current Australian/New Zealand wind load standard, AS/NZS 1170.2-2002 specifies increased negative pressure coefficients on the leeward half of high pitch roof buildings, and critical bending moments in the supporting frames calculated from these distributions agree quite well with values obtained from the wind tunnel study. However, other major standards severely underestimate the critical bending moments, and the effective pressure coefficients producing those bending moments, especially on the leeward roof slope.     

The UWO contribution to the NIST aerodynamic database for wind loads on low buildings: Part 2. Comparison of data with wind load provisions

Wind tunnel test data on generic low buildings have been obtained at the University of Western Ontario (UWO) to contribute to the NIST aerodynamic database. In Part 1 the basic data and archiving format are presented. In the present paper, data from two models of different roof slope (1:12 and 3:12) at four eave heights each (4.9 m (16 ft), 7.3 m (24 ft), 9.8 m (32 ft), and 12.2 m (40 ft)), in open and suburban terrain conditions, were examined in detail. The data were compared to the historical data obtained by Stathopoulos in the late 1970s from which current North American code provisions were developed. Structural response coefficients were calculated on an assumed structural system and these data were compared with the current wind load provisions for low buildings in the ASCE 7-02 (ASCE Standard, Minimum Design Loads for Building and other Structures, ASCE 7-02, ASCE, New York, USA, 2002), the AS/NZS 1170.2 (Australian/New Zealand Standard Structural Design Actions, Part 2: 2002—AS/NZS 1170.2:2002, Standards Australia International Ltd., Sydney, AS and Standards New Zealand, Wellington, NZ, 2002), the Eurocode (Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions on Structures. Part 2-4: Wind Actions, ENV-1991-2-4-1, CFN, Brussels, 1995), and the NBCC (National Building Code for Canada 1995 (NBCC(1995)); Includes User's Guide—NBC 1995 Structural Commentaries (Part 4), NRCC, Ottawa, Canada, 1995. The peak response coefficients from the current data set were found to increase with eave height. The ASCE 7-02 and the NBCC (1995) underestimated the peak response coefficients calculated for the current data set by ∼15% for the lowest eave height; and were worse for larger eave heights. Generally, the Eurocode (ENV, 1995) wind load provisions match the peak response coefficients from the data set at all eave heights. The response coefficients calculated using the AS/NZS (2002) provisions were generally a good match for the interior region only, however they significantly underestimated the wind tunnel response coefficients for the end bays.     

The UWO contribution to the NIST aerodynamic database for wind loads on low buildings: Part 3. Internal pressures

Wind tunnel tests of generic low buildings have been conducted at the University of Western Ontario for contribution to the National Institute on Standards and Technology (NIST) aerodynamic database. Part 1 provided the archiving format and basic aerodynamic data. In Part 2, the data of external pressures were compared with existing wind load provisions for low buildings. This paper, Part 3, deals with an investigation of wind-induced internal pressures of low-rise buildings with realistic dominant opening and leakage scenarios. Data from one building model with four different opening sizes were compared with numerical simulations. The existing theory, using the unsteady orifice discharge equation, works well for the building models used in this study, given the external pressures near the openings, irrespective of shifts of wind direction and upstream terrain. Numerical simulations can capture the temporal variations of the internal pressure fluctuations, as well as mean values.The internal pressure fluctuations for the building with leakage (nominally sealed building) are attenuated as they pass through the openings, while mean values are consistent with spatially averaged external pressures. Internal pressure resonance occurs for the dominant opening (3.3% open ratio) with building leakage. Effects of oblique wind angles on internal pressure dynamics are not significant, at least for the openings in the centre of wall, as is the case herein. Peak internal pressures occur for a wind direction normal to the wall with a dominant opening. Measured internal pressure coefficients are compared with current wind load provisions. Some peak values were found to exceed the recommended design values for the dominant windward wall opening cases.     

Helmholtz oscillation in building models

The nature of wind-induced Helmholtz oscillation of air pressure in building cavities was studied experimentally by testing an impermeable rigid building model in a wind tunnel. The model had a single room and a single external opening of four different sizes. It was tested in both laminar uniform wind and turbulent boundary-layer wind, with or without a cylinder placed near the building. The RMS value and the spectrum of the fluctuating external and internal pressures were measured and compared with each other. The Helmholtz resonance was found to be present in all the different types of flows studied. The spectral peak showed that the internal pressure generated by different flows all fluctuated at the Helmholtz frequency predicted by using a polytropic exponent equal to 1.4 (adiabatic) and an orifice contraction coefficient approximately equal to 0.88. The test results support a recent theory on Helmholtz oscillation based on aerodynamic analysis.     

多国规范平屋盖围护结构外表面设计风压对比研究

对比分析了中国GB 50009-2012、德国DIN 1055-4、美国ASCE/SEI 7-10、日本AIJ-2004、欧洲BS EN 1991-1-4:2005、加拿大NBC-2005、澳大利亚/新西兰AS/NZS 1170.2:2011、英国BS 6399-2:1997等规范中关于平屋盖围护结构外表面设计风压的有关规定。为便于比较,将各国规范风荷载标准值统一换算为外表面设计风压系数与基本风压乘积的形式。并且将外表面设计风压统一换算为与时距10min、重现期50a的基本风速相对应的值。针对外表面设计风压相关因素,对风向、风压分区、面积折减、建筑尺寸等进行了对比研究。最后,结合平屋盖风洞试验,探讨了外表面设计风压的具体取值建议。研究表明：平屋盖围护结构外表面设计风压的确定,建议考虑360°全风向;对屋盖边缘应进行风压分区,角部也应进行单独的风压分区;屋盖表面不同位置建议采用不同的面积折减公式;针对不同高度或宽高比建筑给定不同的外表面设计风压建议取值。     

Experimental study of the wind forces on rectangular latticed communication towers with antennas

With today's expanding communication systems, a large number of lattice towers to support cellular antennas are being constructed in Brazil. Due to the lightweight of these structures, wind forces are the primary concern in the design. An experimental investigation on the subject was carried out at the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory, University of Western Ontario (UWO), Canada. Three section models were designed and constructed based on existing latticed towers built in Brazil. The wind incidence angle; the tower solidity; the shielding effect; the influence of the wind turbulence on the drag coefficient were analyzed. Measurements were made of the mean and RMS drag and crosswind forces. The results were compared with some existing codes and standards including the Canadian (NBCC, 1995), American (ASCE 7-95, 1995), Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS 1170.2-2002), Australian (AS 3995-1994), British (BS8100, 1986), Eurocode 1 (European Committee for Standardization, 1995) and Brazilian (NBR 6123, 1988). It is a common approach to consider the wind forces on antennas independent of the lattice tower, without considering the effects of their presence on the computation of the wind forces. The question arises whether this is a good approach or not. These effects can be described by introducing an interference factor. This factor depends, among other things, on the tower solidity. Two models with different solidity were tested for wind incidence angle of 0 degrees and antenna dishes simulated with disks made of Styrofoam attached to the windward face. The results were compared with ESDU.     

Quasi-steady theory and point pressures on a cubic building

A quasi-steady method which uses observed mean pressure coefficients to predict the expected peak positive or negative pressures is developed. It is shown that in the case of wall pressures this involves calculating the joint probability of instantaneous wind direction and gust dynamic pressure. With roof pressures the situation is more complex since the pressures are also sensitive to elevation angles and so the joint probability also includes this angle. Comparison of these predictions with observed data from the Silsoe 6 m cube show reasonable agreement.     

Internal pressures - The dominant windward opening case - A review

A building with a dominant opening in a wall may experience internal pressures equal to, or greater than, the external wind pressures in a severe windstorm. This is a critical design case in severe wind events, during which accidental openings may be produced by windborne debris or by direct wind loading.This paper reviews previous work on the prediction of fluctuating and peak internal pressures arising from a dominant opening on a windward wall, and summarizes proposed, or current, code formulations in a unified non-dimensional format. Experimental data from a number of sources are plotted together, and are found to fall into two groups, depending on the turbulence intensity in the approach flow.It is shown that the proposed relationships for the ratio of internal to external pressure fluctuations differ considerably, depending on the assumptions made. An intermediate relationship, which agrees well with experimental data in approach flow with turbulence intensities representative of atmospheric wind flow in developed boundary layers, is presented, and a design example of its application is given.     

Hydrostatic, wind and non-uniform lateral pressure solutions for containment vessels

The governing Flügge stability equations in coupled form are used for cylinders subjected to external pressure that varies circumferentially. Three cases are considered: fluid (hydrostatic) pressure, wind pressure and partial (patch) circumferential pressure. The wind load follows the Australian Standard AS 1170.2 (1989). Longitudinal variation of the load is not considered. The numerical process gives the stagnation buckling pressure for different shell geometry and simple support conditions at each end. The Galerkin method is employed to orthogonalize the error made with the introduction of the finite series into the governing equations. The solutions are compared with a few published solutions in the literature.     

Interference effects on local peak pressures between two buildings

Local peak pressure coefficients between two buildings were studied by using wind tunnel experiments for various locations, different height ratios of interfering building and wind directions. The measured local peak pressure coefficients were compared to those obtained previously from a study on an isolated building. This study also investigated interference effects for local peak pressures on a principal building with various configurations and different height ratios of an interfering building. The experimental results have been examined and presented from the viewpoint of cladding design. The results show that highest peak suctions on a principal building increased with increase in height ratios of the interfering building. The oblique configuration generated more severe peak suction than the tandem configuration. To examine the interference effects for local peak pressures in detail, interference factors for maximum positive and minimum negative peak pressures at each measurement point (i, j) of the principal building for all wind directions are presented and discussed.     

考虑特征湍流影响的体育场悬挑屋盖脉动风压谱模型

基于风洞试验对体育场悬挑屋盖的脉动风压谱进行系统研究,旨在得到适用于此类结构的脉动风压谱模型,为风振响应分析提供必要的信息。通过对屋盖表面脉动风压进行谱分析,可知在屋盖前缘处的风压谱与来流风速谱较接近,但屋盖后缘处则差异很大,表现出明显的漩涡脱落特征。因此脉动风压自谱采用来流谱与漩涡脱落谱相结合的形式来描述,并通过权数因子体现屋盖表面不同位置处流场作用的特点。对于脉动风压互谱则用指数衰减函数来表示,并确定了适用于悬挑屋盖的衰减系数。为验证所提出风压谱模型的有效性及特征湍流对风致效应的影响,对系列悬挑屋盖结构进行风振响应分析,风荷载时程分别采用风洞试验测得的风压时程、基于建议风压谱模型模拟生成的风压时程、按拟定常假设生成的风压时程。基于建议模型得到的响应结果与试验结果基本一致,基于拟定常假设的风振响应极值偏小10%～15%,均方根值偏小30%～40%,脉动风压谱建模中不可忽略特征湍流的影响。     

开孔结构内部风效应的风洞试验研究

采用刚性模型风洞试验研究结构开孔时的内部风效应。设计制作了具有不同开孔状态的低层房屋模型进行多参数对比风洞试验,研究了开孔结构风致内压的空间分布特性,阐述了风致平均内压及脉动内压的产生机理,给出了平均内部风压系数与均方根内部风压系数的理论估算方法,并与试验结果进行了对比,通过对风压系数时程的分析,探讨了内部风压峰值因子的取值规律及内外压的相关性特性。研究表明风致内压在空间上分布均匀且采用理论方法进行内部风压估算是可行的,在结构设计中有必要提高内部风压峰值因子的取值并考虑内外部风压的联合效应。     

Wind tunnel blockage corrections: Review and application to Savonius vertical-axis wind turbines

An investigation into wake and solid blockage effects of vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) in closed test-section wind tunnel testing is described. Static wall pressures have been used to derive velocity increments along wind tunnel test section which in turn are applied to provide evidence of wake interference characteristics of rotating bodies interacting within this spatially restricted domain. Vertical-axis wind turbines present a unique aerodynamic obstruction in wind tunnel testing, whose blockage effects have not yet extensively investigated. The flowfield surrounding these wind turbines is asymmetric, periodic, unsteady, separated and highly turbulent. Static pressure measurements are taken along a test-section sidewall to provide a pressure signature of the test models under varying rotor tip-speed ratios (freestream conditions and model RPMs). Wake characteristics and VAWT performance produced by the same vertical-axis wind turbine concept tested at different physical scales and in two different wind tunnels are investigated in an attempt to provide some guidance on the scaling of the combined effects on blockage. This investigation provides evidence of the effects of large wall interactions and wake propagation caused by these models at well below generally accepted standard blockage figures.     

开合屋盖体育场风荷载特性试验研究

建筑立墙迎风面开孔时内部风压随开口处外压变化显著,使得屋盖所受净压显著增大,其测量值往往大于规范取值。而对于屋盖顶部开孔的建筑,其内部风荷载我国规范没有相应取值。为了进行开合屋盖结构设计和探讨屋盖顶部开孔对屋盖风荷载变化的影响,以1∶300的几何缩尺比制作了一个开合屋顶体育场的刚性模型,在B类地貌中对该体育场固定、活动屋盖的上、下表面进行了风洞测压试验,得到了屋盖上、下表面的体型系数、平均风压系数、脉动风压系数和极值风压系数。试验结果表明：活动屋盖的开启,可有效减小固定屋盖和活动屋盖的平均风荷载,引发整个结构承受向下的风荷载;活动屋盖开启将增大固定屋盖和活动屋盖的净脉动风荷载;活动屋盖开启将减小固定屋盖和活动屋盖的极小值风荷载,且固定屋盖上的最大极小值风压系数的位置往屋顶开口方向移动。     

Characterisation of pressure fluctuations on the leeward and side faces of rectangular buildings and accuracy of the quasi-steady loads

Equivalent static loads on buildings are usually evaluated following the quasi-steady approach, assuming that instantaneous approaching wind velocities are directly translated into surface pressures at all points on the building faces. Such an approach is in contrast with the actual nature of pressures, acting on the faces, exposed to a separated flow. For these, mean and fluctuating pressures are not directly related to the characteristics of the oncoming flow and, to an even lesser extent are fully correlated to those acting at corresponding points on the windward surfaces. To investigate the characteristics of the pressure fluctuations on the leeward and side faces of medium-rise, rectangular plan buildings and to quantify the error associated with the quasi-steady assumption, in this paper the results of wind tunnel pressure measurements are discussed. The characteristics of fluctuating pressures and the equivalent static load are compared with those arising from the application of the quasi-steady approach and from the use of codes of practice.     

低矮房屋风荷载实测研究(Ⅱ)——双坡屋面风压特征分析

基于可移动的双坡屋面实验房获取的近地面台风风速和房屋表面风压同步实测数据,研究了台风作用下低矮房屋屋面风荷载。研究结果表明:在斜向风作用下,迎风屋面屋脊角部区域、屋面角部区域易形成较高的局部峰值负压并具有较大的脉动风压,风压系数概率分布为非高斯分布。在低频范围内,屋脊角部区域脉动风压预测谱与实测压力谱吻合相对较好;在高频范围内,脉动风压预测谱都低估实测谱。相对良态气候条件,在台风天气条件下,来流气流与建筑物相互作用产生的特征湍流对高频范围脉动风压功率谱影响显著,未考虑竖向风攻角和竖向脉动风速变化相对显著,在屋面角部区域现行规范计算方法相对低估其脉动风荷载。     

不同坡度双坡屋盖表面风压特性研究

通过提取东京工艺大学低矮建筑气动数据库中的风压数据,以点风压和面积平均风压为分析参数,研究了不同坡度双坡屋盖表面的风压特性。首先给出了正风向及斜风向作用下,屋盖表面的平均和脉动风压分布。其次,通过Hermite Model法计算了双坡屋盖表面各区格面积平均风压时程的峰值因子,进而计算得到各区格的风压统计峰值,并据此分析了双坡屋盖的最不利风向和易损位置。以迎风角区域为参考,计算了该区域与屋盖其余部位面积平均风压的相关特性。最后探讨了部分国家规范中双坡屋盖围护结构设计风荷载的相关条文,并针对GB 50009-2012《建筑结构荷载规范》给出了修订建议。研究结果表明,根据各坡度屋盖风压分布、风压相关性和风压统计峰值的特点,可将双坡屋盖分为3个坡度区间,即0°≤θ≤15°（低坡度）、15°<θ≤30°（中等坡度）和30°<θ≤45°（高坡度）;在多数双坡屋盖表面,吸力统计极值的最大值均发生于斜风向作用下的迎风角区域;考虑最不利风向下不同部位风吸力幅值的差异,可将低坡度的屋盖表面分为角部、长边边缘、短边边缘和中部4个区域,中等坡度和高坡度的屋盖表面可在此基础上进一步细分出屋脊区域以及短边边缘与屋脊交接区域进行风压统计。     

Wind effects on the world’s longest spatial lattice structure: Loading characteristics and numerical prediction

The 486-m long roof structure of Shenzhen Citizens’ Centre is the world’s longest spatial lattice structure. This paper presents some selected results from a combined wind tunnel and numerical simulation study of wind effects on the extra-long-span roof structure. In this study, simultaneous pressure measurements on its entire roof are made in a boundary layer wind tunnel, and the measured wind pressures, such as mean, root-mean-square (rms) and peak pressure coefficient distributions on the roof are presented and discussed. Based on the measured data from a number of pressure taps, a numerical simulation approach using backpropagation neural networks (BPNN) is developed for the predictions of wind-induced pressure time series at other roof locations which are not covered in the wind tunnel measurements. The BPNN is trained with the pressure data time series measured from adjacent pressure taps. The good performance of the developed neural network is demonstrated by comparing the predictions with the model test results, illustrating that the BPNN approach can serve as an effective tool for the design and analysis of wind effects on large roof structures in conjunction with wind tunnel tests.     

The effects of simulated fire pressure and outside wind on the internal pressure distribution in a five-storey model building

This paper presents some of the wind tunnel pressure measurements made on a five-storey model building (32 cells), with a vertical shaft and fixed leakage characteristics. Internal and external pressures measurements are presented for various wind angles and a simulated fire pressure in a room on floor 2 and floor 4. Comparison is made to assess the effect of fire on internal pressure distribution. Although the results are presented for all the wind angles investigated, a detailed discussion is confined only to a single wind angle. Implications of the combined effect of wind and fire on the shaft pressurization system design calculations must take these two factors into account.

In a fire situation it is possible that escapers may leave some of the shaft doors open or the fire room door may burn down. In such a case the pressurization system can become ineffective, causing escape routes to get smoke-logged. The effect of a combination of fire door openings was also investigated. The results for the following door opening combinations are presented and discussed:

1. (i) shaft door open alone;

2. (ii) fire room door open alone;

3. (iii) shaft and fire room doors open together.

It is shown quite clearly that these openings are significant for a range of wind angles.