Individual differences in output variability as a function of job complexity.

The hypothesis was tested that the standard deviation of employee output as a percentage of mean output (SDp) increases as a function of the complexity level of the job. The data examined were adjusted for the inflationary effects of measurement error and the deflationary effects of range restriction on observed SDp figures, refinements absent from previous studies. Results indicate that SDp increases as the information-processing demands (complexity) of the job increase; the observed progression was approximately 19%, 32%, and 48%, from low to medium to high complexity nonsales jobs, respectively. SDp values for sales jobs are considerably larger. These findings have important implications for the output increases that can be produced through improved selection. They may also contribute to the development of a theory of work performance. In addition, there may be implications in labor economics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory.

A theory of the way working memory capacity constrains comprehension proposes that both processing and storage are mediated by activation and that the total amount of activation available in working memory varies among individuals. Individual differences in working memory capacity for language can account for qualitative and quantitative differences among college-age adults in several aspects of language comprehension. One aspect is syntactic modularity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits interaction among syntactic and pragmatic information, so that their syntactic processes are not informationally encapsulated. Another aspect is syntactic ambiguity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits them to maintain multiple interpretations. The theory is instantiated as a production system model in which the amount of activation available to the model affects how it adapts to the transient computational and storage demands that occur in comprehension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in student cheating.

The incidence and causes of cheating were investigated using a questionnaire, consisting of 21 cheating behaviors, which was distributed to students at an English university. Respondents were asked to indicate, confidentially, which of the behaviors they had engaged in. Reported cheating was widespread and some types of cheating (e.g., on coursework) were more common than others. Reported cheating was more common in men than women; more common with less able students than more able ones; more common in younger students than mature ones; and more common in science and technology students than those in other disciplines. It is suggested that students' motivation, in particular whether they are studying to learn rather than simply to obtain good grades, is a major factor in explaining these differences. The results also indicate that cheating consists of a number of different types of behavior rather than being a unitary concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in cognitive processes.

Studied the effects of verbal ability and sex on performance in a simultaneous matching task. The 537 undergraduates who participated were administered the verbal battery of the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test. Ss with high-verbal ability (high verbals) were much faster than Ss with low-verbal ability (low verbals) in making taxonomic category identity matches and homophone identity matches. Results suggest that verbal ability is related to the speed of retrieval from long-term memory. In addition, high verbals were faster in making physical identity word matches, suggesting that either lexicographically coded information stored in long-term memory is used in such a task or that verbal ability is also related to the speed of retrieval from short-term memory. As expected, males did not differ from females in the time they required to perform any of the matching tasks, although males made slightly more errors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in causal uncertainty.

Presents a scale that measures chronic individual differences in people's uncertainty about their ability to understand and detect cause-and-effect relationships in the social world: the Causal Uncertainty Scale (CUS). The results of Study 1 indicated that the scale has good internal and adequate test–retest reliability. Additionally, the results of a factor analysis suggested that the scale appears to be tapping a single construct. Study 2 examined the convergent and discriminant validity of the scale, and Studies 3 and 4 examined the predictive and incremental validity of the scale. The importance of the CUS to work on depressives' social information processing and for basic research and theory on human social judgment processes is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in dream recall.

Ss who typically fail to remember dreams at home (nonreporters) and Ss who frequently remember dreams (reporters) slept in the laboratory for 4 nights each. Gradual or abrupt awakenings were made at each EEG Stage-I REM (dream) period. Although nonreporters and reporters did not differ in REM-period frequency or EEG patterns during sleep, nonreporters did report dreaming less frequently following REM-period awakenings. Ss showed self-consistency in frequency of dream reporting and in type of failure to report. Some nonreporters typically failed to remember any content; others typically said they were awake and thinking. Comparisons among reporters and sub-groups of nonreporters for eye-movement frequency, arousal threshold, and dreamlike-report content indicate that it may be useful to distinguish different kinds of nonreporters. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in rational thought.

Much research in the last 2 decades has demonstrated that humans deviate from normative models of decision making and rational judgment. In 4 studies involving 954 participants, the authors explored the extent to which measures of cognitive ability and thinking dispositions can predict discrepancies from normative responding on a variety of tasks from the heuristics and biases literature including the selection task, belief bias in the syllogistic reasoning, argument evaluation, base-rate use, covariation detection, hypothesis testing, outcome bias, if-only thinking, knowledge calibration, hindsight bias, and on false consensus paradigm. Significant relationships involving cognitive ability were interpreted as indicating algorithmic level limitations on the computation of the normative response. Relationships with thinking dispositions were interpreted as indicating that styles of epistemic regulation can predict individual differences in performance of these tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in cognitive arithmetic.

Investigated the convergence of mental processes assessed by paper-and-pencil measures defining the Numerical Facility factor and component processes for cognitive arithmetic identified by using chronometric techniques. 100 undergraduates responded to 320 arithmetic problems in a true–false reaction-time (RT) verification paradigm and were administered a battery of ability measures spanning Numerical Facility, Perceptual Speed, and Spatial Relations factors. The 320 cognitive arithmetic problems comprised 80 problems of each of 4 types: simple addition, complex addition, simple multiplication, and complex multiplication. Information-processing results indicate that regression models that included a structural variable consistent with memory network retrieval of arithmetic facts were the best predictors of RT to each of the 4 types of arithmetic problems. Generally, results provide evidence for continuity of intellectual abilities identified with the use of factor-analytic methods and elementary component processes isolated with the use of RT techniques. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in visual self-recognition as a function of mother–infant attachment relationship.

Investigated whether individual differences in visual self-recognition are related to infants' early social relations by comparing 37 infants' attachment relationships at 12 mo of age to their visual self-recognition at both 18 and 24 mo of age. Infants and their mothers were observed in a modified strange-situation procedure (M. D. Ainsworth et al, 1978) when the infants were 12 mo old. Infants were seen again at 18 and 24 mo of age in the standard mirror-recognition procedure. Consistent with previous studies, self-recognition behavior increased from 18 to 24 mo of age. Individual differences in early attachment relations were related to later self-recognition. In particular, insecurely attached infants showed a trend toward earlier self-recognition than did securely attached infants. Results are discussed in terms of the relation between attachment and individuation. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in prepulse inhibition of startle as a measure of individual dopamine function.

This study investigated whether individual differences in prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex reflect meaningful trait differences in the function of dopaminergic substrates that regulate it. Baseline PPI of individual rats showed strong test-retest reliability across 3 consecutive test days, and there was a significant negative correlation between individual baseline PPI and both disruption of PPI produced by apomorphine and facilitation of PPI by haloperidol. The test-retest reliability and the inverse association between baseline PPI and drug-induced effects were stronger with 8–10 dB prepulses compared with less intense prepulses. These results demonstrate that individual differences in baseline PPI predict individual differences in sensitivity of PPI to drugs that affect the dopamine system and that PPI produced by more intense prepulses may be more representative of these individual differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in phenomenological experience: States of consciousness as a function of absorption.

In Exp I, 179 female and 70 male undergraduates were used to assess the relation betwen absorption and the dimensions of consciousness monitored during the stimulus conditions of sitting quietly with eyes open, reading erotica, and relaxation-meditation. Ss were administered the Absorption and Introversion–Extraversion subscales of the Differential Personality Questionnaire. Results show almost no sex differences for the various dimensions of consciousness. Significant correlations were found between absorption and awareness and state of awareness, altered experience and meaning, perception, time sense, and body image. In Exp II, 217 female and 87 male undergraduates were used to compare differences in phenomenological state across low-, medium-, and high-absorption Ss. Results show that absorption correlated with increased and more vivid imagery, inward and absorbed attention, positive affect, decreased self-awareness, and increased alterations in state of consciousness and various aspects of subjective experience. Ss with high-absorption ability experienced a different state of consciousness during ordinary, waking consciousness that became an altered state with eye closure and a hypnoticlike induction. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in social loafing: Need for cognition as a motivator in collective performance.

Numerous situational factors have been found to moderate the extent to which individuals engage in social loafing, but few studies have investigated the influence of individual differences on individual motivation within groups. The present study examined whether need for cognition, an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors, moderates social loafing effects. It was predicted that individuals with a high need for cognition would be less likely to loaf on a cognitively engaging task. Individuals with a low need for cognition performed significantly better in the coactive than in the collective condition, whereas individuals with a high need for cognition worked just as hard collectively as coactively. Results were interpreted within the collective effort model (S. J. Karau & K. D. Williams, 1993). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in response to a Zen meditation exercise.

In order to explore the psychological functions involved in meditation, 28 male college student volunteers were instructed in a concentration exercise related to Zen Buddhist procedures. Their response to the exercise was rated as high, moderate, and low from verbal reports taken after daily 45-min. sessions over a 2-3 wk. period. Response was then compared with premeditation test results related to attention, tolerance for unrealistic experience, and capacity for regression in the service of the ego (derived from Rorschach expressions of "primary process" and from spontaneous visual imagery). Capacity for regression and tolerance for unrealistic experience significantly predicted response to meditation, while attention measures did not. Once issues related to comfort in the face of strange inner experience are resolved, attention functions necessary to the exercise probably became available. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in preferences to photographs.

Individual differences in preferences to photographs were explored based on an alternative framework. This framework predicts that the primary difference between individuals in this respect is their ability to process photographic information, which in turn influences their preferences. Chiefly, people with well-developed schemes in photography (e.g., photo professionals) should have a higher ability to process photographic information than people with less developed schemes (e.g., psychology students). Consequently, people with well-developed schemes in photography should prefer photographs that are relatively more demanding to process. Ten psychology students and 5 photo professionals assessed 32 photographs on six general concepts: Preference, Hedonic Tone, Expressiveness, Familiarity, Uncertainty, and Dynamics. As predicted, photo professionals had a higher ability to process photographic information and preferred photographs that were relatively uncertain and unfamiliar. These results are in concordance with previous research and give strong support to the utility of the present framework in experimental aesthetics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in adult decision-making competence.

The authors evaluated the reliability and validity of a set of 7 behavioral decision-making tasks, measuring different aspects of the decision-making process. The tasks were administered to individuals from diverse populations. Participants showed relatively consistent performance within and across the 7 tasks, which were then aggregated into an Adult Decision-Making Competence (A-DMC) index that showed good reliability. The validity of the 7 tasks and of overall A-DMC emerges in significant relationships with measures of socioeconomic status, cognitive ability, and decision-making styles. Participants who performed better on the A-DMC were less likely to report negative life events indicative of poor decision making, as measured by the Decision Outcomes Inventory. Significant predictive validity remains when controlling for demographic measures, measures of cognitive ability, and constructive decision-making styles. Thus, A-DMC appears to be a distinct construct relevant to adults' real-world decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in beliefs about groups.

The current research examined individual differences in peoples' positive versus negative beliefs about groups. Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a 16-item Beliefs About Groups (BAG) scale. Factor analyses in Studies 1 and 2 identified and replicated a 4-factor solution, with factors reflecting preferences for group versus individual work, positive group performance beliefs, negative group performance beliefs, and beliefs that others will work hard on group tasks. Study 2 also provided evidence for convergent and divergent validity, and explored relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and group beliefs. Study 3 provided evidence for test–retest reliability. Across these 3 studies, the BAG scale had total score alphas ranging from .83 to .88. Implications of beliefs about groups for member motivation and group performance, as well as for future research and practice, are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in dyadic cooperative learning.

The impact of individual differences on the performance of 2 roles—learner and learning facilitator—was assessed during dyadic cooperative learning. Eighty university students, 40 men and 40 women, participated in same-sex groups of 4. Each student cooperatively learned a text passage with 1 partner and then learned a 2nd passage with another partner. In a later session, the students recalled the information contained within both text passages and completed several personality measures. A social relations analysis (D. A. Kenny & L. LaVoie, 1984) was used to partition the variability in recall for the passages into various sources. Variability in recall depended strongly on individual differences in learning ability and (to a lesser extent) on individual differences in the ability to facilitate others' learning. Differences in the ability to learn text passages were independent of individual differences in the ability to facilitate others' learning. Effective learners were high in verbal ability, whereas effective learning facilitators were low in public self-consciousness and in self-monitoring. The influence of cognitive and rapport factors on the performance of the learner role and the learning facilitator role is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in complex spatial processing.

Presents an information-processing model for a laboratory visualization task that represents an adaptation of a standardized spatial ability test. The laboratory visualization task includes item types varying in processing complexity and number of stimulus elements. 34 undergraduates provided latency and accuracy data to (a) test the fit of the information-processing model and (b) estimate 4 processing parameters: encoding and comparison, rotation, search, and preparation response. Positive (same) and negative (different) trial data were well fit by the model both at the group and individual S level, with plausible and reliable parameter estimates. Analyses of individual differences showed that search speed and error rates for positive and negative trials were most highly correlated with reference test scores. The pattern of results suggests that individual differences are a function of differences in the accuracy and/or quality of the mental representation, not just speed of processing. Both speed and accuracy differences in task performance are argued to be manifestations of this qualitative difference. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)