Salary equity: Its determination, analysis, and correlates.

Divided professional employees in a division of the Federal Public Health Service into an equity subsample (n = 96) and an inequity subsample (n = 74) based on their perceived fairness of salary treatment: (questionnaires completed by the Ss and their immediate superiors). Through the multiple-regression analysis a quantitative model was developed that predicted equitable salaries with a high degree of accuracy and served to significantly reduce the perceived inequity of the inequity subsample. This model emphasized maturity-type variables. Ss in the equity subsample demonstrated less dissonance, more favorable attitudes toward their work and the organization, and a lower propensity to terminate voluntarily employment than Ss in the inequity subsample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality moderators of the relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates' resistance.

Results of a study using data collected at 2 points in time, separated by 6 months, suggested that subordinates resisted their supervisors' downward influence tactics with greater frequency when their supervisors were more abusive and that subordinates' personality moderated the effects of abusive supervision. The relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates' dysfunctional resistance was stronger among subordinates who were lower in conscientiousness than among subordinates who were higher in conscientiousness, but this effect emerged only for subordinates who were also lower in agreeableness. The relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates' constructive resistance was stronger among subordinates who were higher in conscientiousness than among subordinates who were lower in conscientiousness. The study's implications for theory and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From inequity to burnout: The role of job stress.

This research examined burnout (i.e., emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment) among 2 samples of Dutch teachers as a function of inequity and experienced job stress in 3 different exchange relationships (with students, colleagues, and the school). It was hypothesized that inequity would he linked to burnout through the stress resulting from this inequity. Analysis of a cross-sectional sample (N?=?271) revealed that this was indeed the case. Findings were replicated longitudinally using an independent sample of 940 teachers. It is concluded that the often-reported effect of inequity on burnout can partly be interpreted in terms of elevated levels of job stress. Implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance appraisal and psychological distance.

This study investigated the rating attitudes of supervisors and subordinates and their reactions during public- and private-performance evaluations. 84 women nursing administrators were assigned roles as supervisors and subordinates and given instructions for subordinate-evaluation interviews. 24 interviews were conducted, 6 in private and 18 in public, with Os randomly selected from the nursing administrators. The results clearly indicated that supervisors were more negative in their initial subordinate-appraisal ratings than subordinates. In addition, Os were more negative in their ratings than participants. When evaluative interviews were conducted publicly, the subordinates experienced a number of negative reactions that were not evident in private interviews. The concepts of psychological distance and role stereotypes were discussed in explaining these results. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detecting sex bias in salaries.

Asserts that the difference index proposed by the author (in press) represents the most effective means of assessing sex bias in salaries and is preferable to regression-based indices regardless of the type of available measures of qualifications and salary. The difference index defines sex bias as the difference in mean salary inequities between men and women and emphasizes the necessity of deciding how much relevant differences in qualifications are worth. Unlike the regression indices, if measurement errors are uncorrelated with sex, the difference index is unchanged. This index is also applicable to other employee characteristics and types of inequity. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leadership behavior and subordinate stress: A 360" view.

Relationships between leader behavior and subordinate work stress were examined from the perspectives of 343 leaders, their bosses, and their subordinates. Leader behaviors did relate to stress experienced by staff; however, leaders' views of what related to subordinate stress did not always coincide with the factors that subordinates themselves associated with stress. The relationships of leader delegation and subordinate participation to lower subordinate reports of stress were particularly underestimated by leaders. Implications for developing leaders as agents for employee stress reduction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic group differences in relationships among criteria of job performance.

Investigated racial discrimination and differential bias in criterion measures for 75 black and 359 white tellers in a large bank. 6 supervisory ratings and 4 objective criteria (adjusted salary increase, percent of time worked, and number of shortages and averages) were obtained. Results indicate that mean differences between black and white employees on the criterion measures were generally small, and most statistically significant differences were reduced to nonsignificance when the effects of age and job tenure were removed. However, further analyses showed that the white supervisors based their evaluations of subordinates on objective data for black employees considerably more than they did for white employees. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black-white differences in leader behavior related to subordinates' reactions.

Investigated differences in 4 managerial leadership measures (managerial support, goal emphasis, work facilitation, and interaction facilitation) among 72 Black, 36 White, and 15 Chicano subordinates of 16 Black and 17 White supervisors in 3 industrial plants. The 10 supervisory leadership questions used are part of a larger instrument, the Survey of Organizations. Findings were analyzed to determine whether or not the subordinates' reactions to their supervisors on each managerial leadership measure varied with (a) the race of the supervisor, (b) the race of supervisor and subordinates, and (c) the majority or minority numerical status of subordinates in work groups with supervisor of the same or different race. Results indicate that the behavior of supervisors toward their subordinates is a complex function of (a) the supervisor's own race and role in combination with (b) the race of subordinates and (c) the majority or minority positions of racial groups within the group supervised. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Labor market adjustments in psychology.

Presents a relatively simple economic model of the market for psychologists as an attempt to answer questions relating to (a) changes in the labor market for psychologists and other scientists, (b) variance over time in the number of college students choosing psychology, and (c) rate of salary increase. The model is based on supply, demand, and their interaction. The economic analysis of professional markets is based on response to salaries by students and experienced specialists, adjustment of salaries to changes in market conditions, and response of employers to salaries. Depending on time patterns of response, analysis generated cobweb, incomplete, and simultaneous adjustment mechanisms. The increasing role of the federal government in professional markets is seen as an important determinant of supply and demand. The economic model is discussed in relation to issues relating to (a) long-term changes in the supply of psychologists, (b) post-World War II changes in supply and salary, (c) the reallocation of specialists among industrial sectors and subfields, and (d) the future state of the market. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of past and anticipated future downsizing on survivor well-being: An Equity perspective.

Worker well-being was examined as a function of past downsizing and expectations concerning future downsizing. Data from 1,297 Finnish workers were analyzed using analysis of variance and structural modeling analysis. Having experienced downsizing in the past or anticipating downsizing in the future was associated with elevated levels of inequity, which in turn were associated with elevated levels of psychological strain, cynicism, and absence. There were also direct effects of past/anticipated future downsizing on strain, cynicism. and absence, meaning that inequity only partly mediated the relationship between downsizing and well-being. Moreover, well-being varied as a function of type of downsizing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of hourly overpay and underpay inequity when tested with a new induction procedure.

Tested J. S. Adams' (see PA, Vol. 40:8736) inequity theory with an induction which did not challenge the workers' job qualifications, eliminating devalued self-esteem as a confounding variable. 31 workers were hired for an hourly pay clerical task in a real job situation and assigned to 1 of 3 groups overpay, underpay, and control in a before-after design. Contrary to inequity theory predictions and to previous inequity theory experiments, there were no significant work performance differences among the 3 groups, but 3 of 11 underpay Ss quit the job while no other Ss quit. It is concluded that the results of this experiment combined with the results of other experiments strongly suggest that inequity effects previously reported are probably due to the self-esteem variable. It is suggested that research on wage inequity should focus more on variables, e.g., turnover, satisfaction, and recruitment rather than solely on work performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of computer-assisted versus teacher-directed instruction on the multiplication performance of elementary students with learning disabilities

Relationships between leader behavior and subordinate work stress were examined from the perspectives of 343 leaders, their bosses, and their subordinates. Leader behaviors did relate to stress experienced by staff; however, leaders' views of what related to subordinate stress did not always coincide with the factors that subordinates themselves associated with stress. The relationships of leader delegation and subordinate participation to lower subordinate reports of stress were particularly underestimated by leaders. Implications for developing leaders as agents for employee stress reduction are discussed.     

Further effects of role versus gender on interpersonal sensitivity.

Past research has shown that, regardless of sex, those in a subordinate role are more sensitive to how their leaders feel about them than are the leaders sensitive to their subordinates, suggesting that the stereotypically greater sensitivity of women might be explained by their traditionally subordinate role to men. The present study further investigated this phenomenon, specifically in a boss–employee situation. A total of 120 Ss interacted in 96 pairs (male, female, and mixed-sex). Results revealed no significant sex differences but indicated that subordinates were more sensitive to how their leaders felt about them (the subordinates), and leaders were more sensitive to how their subordinates felt about themselves. Findings are discussed in relation to role requirements of leader and subordinate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextualizing emotional exhaustion and positive emotional display: The signaling effects of supervisors’ emotional exhaustion and service climate.

In this study, we investigated how supervisors’ emotional exhaustion and service climate jointly influence the relationship between subordinates’ emotional exhaustion and their display of positive emotions at work. Using data from frontline sales employees and their immediate supervisors in a fashion retailer, we hypothesized and found that under the condition of a less positive service climate, subordinates’ emotional exhaustion was more negatively related to their positive emotional display when supervisors’ emotional exhaustion was higher rather than lower; this interaction effect of subordinates’ and supervisors’ emotional exhaustion was not significant in a more positive service climate. These results suggest that service climate and supervisors’ emotional exhaustion provide emotionally exhausted employees with important information cues about the possible availability of compensatory resources they need to uphold their efforts to display service-focused emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Superior–Subordinate Relationships in Korean Civil Engineering Companies

The Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) relationship quality between superiors and subordinates in Korean civil engineering companies were empirically examined for superiors’ feedback-seeking behaviors. The results showed that for superiors, affect, loyalty, and contribution toward subordinates were positively related to seeking negative as well as positive feedback from subordinates. From subordinates’ point of view, affect, contribution, and professional respect toward their superiors were positively related to superiors’ negative feedback seeking, but affect was negatively related to superiors’ positive feedback seeking. It was also found that superiors and subordinates were not consensual in LMX and superiors’ feedback-seeking behaviors. For example, for superiors, all of the four LMX dimensions were positively related to superiors’ asking subordinates directly for feedback, whereas for subordinates, none of the LMX dimensions were significantly related to superiors’ asking subordinates directly for feedback. These and other findings are discussed in detail, and implications for the findings are provided.     

Impact of employee mobility and employee performance on the allocation of rewards under conditions of constraint.

We advanced and tested a multiple-motive model of resource allocation. In this model we identified importance instrumental, social-emotional, and group maintenance goals, and asserted that rational managers will sometimes allocate reduced rewards to employees with constrained mobility. Consistent with predictions, managers allocated greater salary funds to more deserving employees: those with high competence and dedication. However, allocations also differed as a function of employee mobility. This effect was strongest among competent employees, whose membership was most desirable. Furthermore, the tendency to allocate lesser rewards to low-mobility employees was particularly pronounced under conditions of low reward availability and low labor availability. These effects were not mediated by changes in perceptions of the competence of low-mobility employees. These findings are discussed as a form of rational selective exploitation: The rational manager's need to attend to employee mobility, particularly under conditions of reward or labor constraint, may erode equity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex effects on performance ratings on manager–subordinate dyads: A field study.

Tested the hypothesis of N. Schmitt et al (see record 1980-33528-001) that people rate those similar to themselves with more confidence, which is reflected in larger variances in performance ratings. 286 manager–subordinate dyads in all 4 sex combinations comprised the sample. Subordinates rated managers on the Behavioral Observation Scales (BOS), and managers rated subordinates using the Minnesota Satisfactoriness Scales (MSS). Bartlett's test for homogeneity of variance revealed that female subordinates produced significantly more variability when rating their male managers than when rating their female managers on total BOS rating. Female managers produced more variable ratings of male subordinates than for female subordinates on total MSS rating. Male subordinates and managers did not produce more variable BOS or MSS ratings when appraising other males than when rating females. Results are discussed in terms of role expectations. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power and the Creation of Patronizing Environments: The Stereotype-Based Behaviors of the Powerful and Their Effects on Female Performance in Masculine Domains.

This work tested the following hypothesis: When powerful men stereotype their female subordinates in masculine domains, they behave in patronizing ways that affect the performance of their subordinates. Experiment 1 examined the stereotyping tendencies and patronizing behaviors of the powerful. Findings revealed that powerful men who stereotyped their female subordinates (i.e., those who were weakness focused) gave female subordinates few valued resources but much praise. In Experiment 2, low-power participants received resources (valued or devalued positions) and praise (high or low) from a powerful man. Subordinates who were assigned to a devalued position but received high praise (i.e., the patronizing behavior mirrored from Experiment 1) were angry. However, men performed better in the anger-inspiring situation, whereas women performed worse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and interpersonal predictors of supervisors' avoidance of evaluating subordinates.

Supervisors' decisions about whether to formally evaluate their subordinates for each of 2 consecutive performance appraisal periods were found to be related to a linear combination of the following variables: subordinate's time under current supervisor, subordinate's job experience, subordinate–supervisor trust, supervisor's initiating structure behaviors, and subordinate's confidence in the operation of the performance appraisal system. A follow-up analysis, in which the criterion was the consistency with which subordinates were rated in both performance appraisal periods, suggested that relations among the predictors, relative to the criterion, may be quite complex. This complexity may reflect the decision strategy used by raters to combine information on the focal predictors when deciding whether to evaluate a particular subordinate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of leader behaviors on subordinate performance and satisfaction: A laboratory experiment with student employees.

Four groups of 12 participants were hired to code videotaped group interactions using the Bales coding system (R. F. Bales, 1950). Each of the 4 groups experienced different leader behaviors of either high or low consideration in conjunction with either high or low initiating structure. Results indicate that subordinates did not perceive the leader manipulations as different but that these manipulations caused differences in quantity and quality of work. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)