Implicit misattribution as a mechanism underlying evaluative conditioning.

Evaluative conditioning (EC) refers to the formation or change of an attitude toward an object, following that object’s pairing with positively or negatively valenced stimuli. The authors provide evidence that EC can occur through an implicit misattribution mechanism in which an evaluative response evoked by a valenced stimulus is incorrectly and implicitly attributed to another stimulus, forming or changing an attitude toward this other stimulus. In 5 studies, the authors measured or manipulated variables related to the potential for the misattribution of an evaluation, or source confusability. Greater EC was observed when participants’ eye gaze shifted frequently between a valenced and a neutral stimulus (Studies 1 & 2), when the 2 stimuli appeared in close spatial proximity (Study 3), and when the neutral stimulus was made more perceptually salient than was the valenced stimulus, due to the larger size of the neutral stimulus (Study 4). In other words, conditions conducive to source confusability increased EC. Study 5 provided evidence for multiple mechanisms of EC by comparing the effects of mildly evocative valenced stimuli (those evoking responses that might more easily be misattributed to another object) with more strongly evocative stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence for a hierarchical structure underlying avoidance behavior.

In studies on avoidance learning, a warning signal is followed by an aversive unconditioned stimulus unless the participant performs a designated response. The authors examined whether avoidance behavior can be based on hierarchical knowledge, that is, knowledge about the conditions under which certain relations hold. In the present study, a single avoidance response had different effects depending on the nature of the warning signal. Results showed that participants acquired this hierarchical knowledge and used it to avoid negative outcomes. The results are in line with an occasion setting account of avoidance learning and can be explained also by a modified version of Lovibond's (2006) account of avoidance learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior.

Reviews research on placebos, hypnosis, and fear reduction that indicates that response expectancies, defined as expectancies of the occurrence of nonvolitional responses, generate corresponding subjective experiences, the genuineness of which has been substantiated by corresponding changes in behavior and physiological function. The means by which response expectancies affect experience, physiology, and behavior are hypothesized to vary as a function of response mode. The generation of changes in subjective experience by corresponding response expectancies is suggested to be a basic psychological mechanism. Physiological effects are accounted for by the mind–body identity assumption that is common to all nondualist philosophies of psychology. It is argued that the effects of response expectancies on volitional behavior are due to the reinforcing properties of many nonvolitional responses. Research also indicates that classical conditioning appears to be one method by which response expectancies are acquired, but response expectancy effects that are inconsistent with a conditioning hypothesis have also been documented. (134 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Regulatory focus as a mediator of the influence of initiating structure and servant leadership on employee behavior.

In this research, the authors test a model in which the regulatory focus of employees at work mediates the influence of leadership on employee behavior. In a nationally representative sample of 250 workers who responded over 2 time periods, prevention focus mediated the relationship of initiating structure to in-role performance and deviant behavior, whereas promotion focus mediated the relationship of servant leadership to helping and creative behavior. The results indicate that even though initiating structure and servant leadership share some variance in explaining other variables, each leadership style incrementally predicts disparate outcomes after controlling for the other style and dispositional tendencies. A new regulatory focus scale, the Work Regulatory Focus (WRF) Scale, also was developed and initially validated for this study. Implications for the results and the WRF Scale are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence and leadership as a function of group structure.

"In a group decision situation, influence and perceived leadership were studied as a function of an individual's position in the communication network of his group. The hypotheses were advanced that, regardless of the network he is in, a group member (a) will be influenced less as his group reaches a decision, and (b) will be perceived as the group leader more often when his position in the communication network is more central… . On an overall basis, both hypotheses were confirmed… . The hypothesis concerning influence was tenable only in the case of one kind of network." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal adjustment as a determinant of aggressive behavior toward the mentally ill.

36 undergraduates acted as teachers whose job was to enable a person whom they believed to be an exmental patient to learn an arbitrarily correct series of button presses. Ss could only communicate with the learner by shocking him when he was incorrect and could vary both the intensity and duration of the shock. It was found, using mean shock duration as an index of punitiveness, that the more emotionally unstable (and thus similar to the learner) an S believed himself to be, the less punitive he was toward the learner. The surprising utility of the shock duration measure as an index of aggression against a stigmatized person is discussed. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapist behavior as a determinant for client noncompliance: A paradox for the behavior modifier.

Examined the immediate impact of therapist behavior on client noncompliance in 2 studies involving 12 3.8–13.1 yr old socially aggressive children and their families. One family participated in both studies. Observation systems describing client and therapist behavior were used to code videotaped therapy sessions. In Study 1, the therapist behaviors teach and confront were associated with significant increases in the likelihood of client noncompliant reactions. Therapist behaviors facilitate and support were followed by reliable decreases in client noncompliance. In Study 2, the therapist behaviors teach and confront were manipulated in a series of single-S ABAB reversal designs. Results demonstrate that changes in therapist behaviors produced increases in client noncompliance. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychometric properties of the Ohio State leadership scales.

Reviews evidence concerning the validity, reliability, and scaling adequacy of 4 versions of the Ohio State leadership scales. A number of shortcomings are noted, due either to the lack of relevant data (e.g., with respect to construct validity) or actual inadequacies of the scales (e.g., item response skewedness). The 4 versions are shown to be substantially different psychometrically; although suffering from some deficiencies and requiring further refinement, one version of the scales appears sounder than the others. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observing leader behavior: Toward reciprocal determinism in leadership theory.

Developed and explored observational measures of leader behavior, relying on a "reciprocal determinism" viewpoint of causality (leader behavior is seen as both a cause of subordinate behavior and caused by it). In Exp I, 28 male undergraduates assumed the role of subordinate in groups of 2 Ss and took part in 1 of 5 experimental interchanges with a "supervisor" (1 of the experimenters). Results show that observational methods of leader verbal behavior were feasible. In Exp II, 10 graduate students performed the role of leader and were subjected to laboratory manipulations of subordinate performance. Results show that 80% of verbal behavior of Ss concentrated on a methods approach as opposed to about 20% effort oriented toward a motivational-verbal approach. Motivational behavior was the most responsive to the performance manipulations. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Answering young children's questions as a determinant of their subsequent question-asking behavior.

Investigated whether answering preschool children's questions increases the frequency with which they ask questions. Data suggest that answers serve a dual function as a discriminative cue and as a reinforcer to elicit and maintain well-established inquiry behavior patterns among young children interacting with an informative adult. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of participatory and supervisory leadership on group creativity.

This study compares the creativity of 4-man groups under 2 conditions of leadership. The Ss were 90 freshmen and sophomore Navy ROTC midshipmen and 30 NROTC seniors who served as group leaders. In 15 of the groups, the leaders acted as chairmen who directed the group discussions and contributed to the task solution. In the other 15 groups, leaders acted in a supervisory capacity: they directed and guided group discussion and they were allowed to encourage members or to reject ideas, but the leaders were prohibited from contributing to the solution of the task. Groups having participatory leaders were generally superior in quantity of output while groups under supervisory leaders were superior in the quality of the product. Although leaders in the 2 conditions did not differ in their satisfaction with the group product, the participatory leaders were more satisfied with their own individual contribution to the task. The leadership styles did not produce differences in the members' esteem for the leader or in the members' morale and satisfaction with the task. Differences were found in the influence of the leader intelligence and ability scores on group creativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leader behavior and therapeutic gain: An application of situational leadership theory.

Theoretical analyses of leadership (e.g., situational leadership theory; P. Hersey & K. H. Blanchard, 1977) argue that leaders shift their emphasis from task to relationship orientation as groups develop. To test these theories, group leaders' conditionality (task orientation) and empathy (relationship orientation) were assessed over a group's existence. As hypothesized, task orientation during the first 5 sessions and relationship orientation during the last 5 sessions accounted for 25% of the variance in group member adjustment. Neither early ratings of leader relationship orientation nor late ratings of leader task orientation were related to member adjustment. In addition, the group leaders' relative level of task or relationship orientation remained consistent across time. These findings lend support to situational leadership theory and suggest ways to enhance therapeutic gain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Number of choices and perceived decision freedom as a determinant of satisfaction and consumer behavior.

Studied how the number of choices confronting an individual influences his perceived decision freedom and, consequently, his satisfaction and consumption level. 72 college students, randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental conditions, were asked to select one soft drink flavor. Perceived decision freedom and consumption levels were significantly greater for those selecting from an enlarged-choice set, but there was no significant difference in the Ss' stated satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Victimization as a determinant of eyewitness accuracy.

Eyewitness identification research frequently uses a simulated crime paradigm, yet the witnesses in these studies are seldom themselves the victims of the crime. To the degree a witness is more personally involved (as a victim), eyewitness identification accuracy and confidence might be modified. 66 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 3 eyewitness conditions: no-theft control, impersonal calculator theft, or personalized watch theft. Whereas the victims in the watch-theft condition were more accurate than Ss in the other 2 treatments, they were not significantly more accurate than witnesses to the less personal calculator theft. Eyewitnesses' accuracy was unrelated to their confidence in their identification. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal encoding as a determinant of blocking.

A blocking paradigm with rats was used to evaluate whether different temporal information is encoded in simultaneous rather than forward associations. During Phase 1, the blocking CS was simultaneously or forward paired with a unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS). During Phase 2, the pretrained CS occurred in compound with a novel target CS that was paired in a simultaneous or forward manner with the UCS. Forward pretraining resulted in more blocking of a forward than a simultaneously trained target CS, and simultaneous pretraining resulted in more blocking of a simultaneously than a forward trained target CS. Thus, greater blocking occurred when the blocking and blocked CSs had the same temporal relation to the UCS. The results support the temporal coding hypothesis and question the necessity of predictive information in blocking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A factor-analytic study of supervisory and group behavior.

Questionnaires were given to 98 skilled tradesmen at a naval shipyard, measuring (1) supervisory practices in relations with employees, and (2) attitudes and interactions of the members of the work group. The 13 subscales were divided in half, resulting in 25 usable variables each including 3-4 items. Factor analysis of the 25 variables yielded 6 factors: I-Supervisor-Subordinate Rapport, II-Congenial Work Group, III-Informal Control, IV-Group Unity, and three doublets. All variables calling for evaluation of supervisory practices emerged on the first factor; the remaining factors were related to relationships among the workers themselves. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)