Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children.

The Hoplessness Scale for Children was developed and administered to 66 8–13 yr old children along with the Children's Depression Inventory, Bellevue Index of Depression, Depression Symptom Checklist, and the Self-Esteem Inventory. As predicted, Ss who scored high on the Hopelessness Scale showed significantly more severe depression and lower self-esteem than those who scored low on the scale. Ss who evinced suicidal attempt or ideation, independently assessed at intake diagnosis, showed greater hopelessness than Ss with no such intent. Suicidal intent was more consistently correlated with hopelessness than with depression, a finding parallel to results obtained with adults. Overall, findings suggest that negative expectations toward oneself and the future can be assessed in children and are related both to depression and suicidal intent. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional versus preattributional variables in self-esteem and depression: A comparison and test of learned helplessness theory.

Tested, in 2 samples of undergraduates (92 in Exp I and 55 in Exp II), predictions made according to the attributional reformulation of learned helplessness theory concerning the cognitive determinants of low self-esteem and depression. Real and hypothetical life events were used. Ss were administered the Beck Depression Inventory, a checklist of life events, and a self-esteem scale. As predicted, internal attributions for hypothetical success and failure were correlated with self-esteem, but there was an unexpected correlation with global attributions for negative outcomes. Two preattributional variables, consensus and consistency judgments, were also related to self-esteem and depression. In contrast to learned helplessness theory, a path analysis indicated that these variables were not attributionally mediated. Consensus judgment was as strong a predictor of depression as the number of recent distressing life events that Ss had experienced. Other evidence that links depression to perceived low consensus is described, and a possible etiological role for this variable is outlined. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prediction of individual outcome in a group intervention for depression.

75 Ss (mean age 36 yrs) who met Research Diagnostic Criteria for a current episode of Major, Minor, or Intermittent Depressive Disorder were assessed on a number of demographic and psychological variables prior to beginning treatment. Treatment outcome was assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory and the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Ss at all levels of depression severity improved markedly, but those who were initially more depressed tended to maintain their relative ranking at posttreatment. After accounting for pretreatment depression severity (PTDS), 6 additional variables emerged as significant predictors of outcome: Ss who improved most had expected to be least depressed posttreatment, had greater perceptions of mastery, had greater reading ability, were younger, perceived their families as more supportive, and were not receiving additional concurrent treatment for depression. These 7 variables, including PTDS, accounted for 51% of the variance in posttreatment depression level. These same variables, excluding PTDS, significantly discriminated between Ss who still met diagnostic criteria for depression at the posttreatment assessment and those who were no longer depressed. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression in university students: Duration, relation to calendar time, prevalence, and demographic correlates.

The duration, relation to calendar time, prevalence, and demographic correlates of depression in university students were studied by administering the Beck Depression Inventory to 4 independent samples (N?=?222) either once or twice at 3 points in time separated by 3-wk intervals. The 3-wk test–retest reliability was .78. There was no significant effect of the 3 points in time sampled. 17% of the Ss scored depressed; of these, 67% still scored depressed 3 wks later. Depression was significantly negatively correlated with year level but was not significantly associated with sex, marital status, their interaction, or age. There was no difference between the rates of depression in lowerclassmen in 1974 and 1977. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The prediction of suicidal intent in depressed patients

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationships between suicidal ideation or suicidal attempts and severity of depression, presence of personality disorders, and sociodemographic factors in a population of depressed in-patients. A total of 338 adult depressed psychiatric in-patients were examined and classified according to DSM-III criteria as having major depression with or without melancholic or psychotic features, adjustment disorder with depressed mood or dysthymic disorder. Scores on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Zung Self-Rating Depression and Anxiety Scales (SDS and SAS) were measured. We found that suicidal ideation was significantly related to severity of depression (according to the HDRS and all self-rating scales), a lower global assessment of functioning the year before hospitalization, and previous psychiatric hospitalizations. The items with the strongest predictive value for suicidal ideation were hopelessness, depressed mood, feelings of guilt, loss of interest and low self-esteem. These symptoms predicted 43% of the variance in suicidal ideation. None of the above predictors of suicidal ideation was related to suicidal attempts. Depressed patients with a personality disorder attempted significantly more suicidal attempts and showed more suicidal ideation than depressed patients without personality disorder. No significant correlations were found between suicidal ideation or suicide attempts and gender, marital status, employment status or psychosocial stressors during the previous 6 months.     

Internal attributions and types of depression in college students: The learned helplessness model revisited.

Tested the relation between attributions and types of depression (with and without low self-esteem) postulated by reformulated learned helplessness theory vs. an alternative (R. Janoff-Bulman; see record 1981-01320-001). 334 Ss completed the Beck Depression Inventory, Attributional Style Questionnaire, and Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale. Scores above 8 on the Beck were considered depressed. A median split on the Janis-Field scale divided Ss into those with and without low self-esteem. Clearest support was found for Janoff-Bulman's formulations. Depressed Ss with low self-esteem made more internal characterological attributions for bad events than the other groups. Nondepressed Ss made more internal behavioral attributions than depressed Ss. The implications for counseling and future research on depression and learned helplessness are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between depression and marital maladjustment in a clinic population: A multitrait-multimethod study.

Took depression and marital maladjustment measures of all 154 couples attending a clinic. Average age for men was 38 yrs, for women 35 yrs; average length of marriage was 19 yrs. A significant correlation between depression and marital maladjustment was found for self-report data and was replicated by therapists' ratings. Women were significantly more depressed than men though similar in average ratings of marital adjustment. Women's depression ratings were minimally related to their own their husbands' marital ratings. Men's depression ratings were related to both their own and their wives' marital ratings. Convergent validity was demonstrated for the Locke and Wallace Marital-Adjustment Test and the Beck Depression Inventory. Clinical implications of findings concerning both depression and marital maladjustment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive correlates of teacher stress and depressive symptoms: Implications for attributional models of depression.

Conducted a test of the reformulated learned helplessness (attributional) model of depression (L. Y. Abramson et al, see record 1979-00305-001). Ss were 75 urban high school teachers who were experiencing high levels of teaching-related stress. Ss were administered Bruno's Teacher Stress Inventory, the Center for Epidemiological Studies—Depression scale, and a specially developed attribution and cognition questionnaire. Results indicate that the teachers experienced a high degree of stress-related depressive symptomatology. The depressive behavior was significantly related to cognitions regarding the consequences of the stressful circumstances, but contrary to the reformulation of learned helplessness, depression was not related to causal attributions regarding these situations. Results suggest the need both for refinements in cognitive theories of depression to distinguish between enduring mood states and transient depressive symptoms arising universally in certain situations, and for the study of depression-related cognitions in naturalistic settings. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of competence inventory for college men and evaluation of relationships between competence and depression.

Hypothesized that deficits in interpersonal and problem-solving skills are significantly related to nonclinical depression. A behavioral role-playing measure of competence in male college students was developed via a procedure introduced by M. R. Goldfried and T. J. D'Zurilla (1969). This new measure, the Problem Inventory for College Students (PICS), was administered to 92 undergraduate males to assess the relationships between competence and depression. Depression was assessed in 2 ways: The current presence or absence of a nonclinical state of depression was measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the tendency toward experiencing frequent nonclinical depressions was measured by self-report. Ss who were currently depressed according to their BDI scores had significantly lower competence scores on the PICS than nondepressed Ss. Ss who reported experiencing frequent depressions did not earn significantly different competence scores on the PICS than Ss who reported seldom experiencing depressions. Results partially support the hypothesized relationship between competence and depression. The association between the PICS and the BDI indicates that incompetence is a concomitant of depression, if not a precursor. Results are a 1st step toward establishing the construct validity of the PICS as a competence measure for college males. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological impacts of sexual contact between therapists or other health care practitioners and their clients.

14 females who had had sexual contact with their therapists/psychiatrists (Group 1), 7 females who had had sexual contact with their health care practitioners (principally physicians [Group 2]), and 10 females who had received counseling services but had not engaged in sexual contact with therapists (Group 3) were compared by administering a questionnaire on self-esteem, depression, attitudes, beliefs about sexual contact, emotional effects of treatment, sexual attitudes, and psychosomatic and psychological symptoms. In addition, data were obtained from Ss, who were primarily aged 26–45 yrs, on (1) history of sexual victimization, (2) marital status of therapist/physician, (3) who initiated sexual contact, and (4) frequency of sexual contact. Results show that Ss in Group 1 had greater mistrust of and anger toward males and therapists and a greater number of psychological and psychosomatic symptoms following the cessation of therapy than did Ss in Group 3. Ss in Groups 1 and 2 did not differ in psychological impacts. Severity of impacts were significantly related to the magnitude of psychological and psychosomatic symptoms prior to treatment, prior sexual victimization, and the marital status of the therapist or health practitioner. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive reactions and unemployment.

Investigated correlates of situation-specific depressive affect associated with unemployment and correlates of more general depressive symptoms assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) for 116 15–32 yr old unemployed Ss. Consistent with a frustrated work-motivation pattern, depressive affect was associated with concern about being unemployed and with stronger endorsement of external causes of unemployment. Consistent with a self-blame view of depression, BDI scores were related to stronger endorsement of internal causes for unemployment, to low self-esteem, and to feelings of helplessness. Stronger endorsement of internal causes was found among those Ss with a longer history of unemployment. Multiple regression analyses showed, however, that the attributional variables accounted for a relatively low proportion of the variance in the depression measures. Results question the adequacy of attributional accounts of depression. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and components of attributional complexity.

Tested the hypothesis that depression is associated with increased attributional complexity. In Study 1, 208 Ss completed the Beck Depression Inventory and the Attributional Complexity Scale. Analyses provided support for the hypothesis. Examination of individual components of attributional complexity revealed that depressed Ss, relative to nondepressed Ss, were higher in level of motivation to engage in attributional processing, the tendency to make complex external attributions, and the use of temporal information. In Study 2, 132 Ss completed the Beck Depression Inventory and made simple or complex causal attributions for naturally occurring positive and negative outcomes. As in Study 1, the depressed Ss made a greater number of complex attributions. The roles of complexity and motivational factors in the attribution process and in depression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group treatment with divorced women using cognitive-behavioral and supportive-insight methods.

Examined the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral and supportive-insight group therapy with 46 women (aged 23–36 yrs) who had been divorced between 8 mo and 1? yrs. 12 clients were assigned to the cognitive-behavioral group; 12 were assigned to a supportive-insight group; and 22 Ss were assigned to 2 control groups. Differences between pre- and posttest, and pretest and follow-up scores on measures of depression (Beck Depression Inventory, Lubin Depression Checklist), self-esteem (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory), and neuroticism (Eysenck Personality Inventory) were taken. When compared with the control groups on the posttest, both cognitive-behavioral and supportive-insight treatments were more effective on most criteria. At the 4-mo follow-up, cognitive-behavioral counseling continued to be beneficial, whereas the supportive-insight approach was consistently less effective. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identification of therapist differences in a group treatment for depression.

Examined therapist variables presumed to be related to outcome in a structured, cognitive-behavioral group treatment for depression. Each of 8 leaders conducted 2 consecutive psychoeducational treatment groups consisting of 5–8 Ss. Of the 106 Ss (aged 17–67 yrs) who participated in the study, 79 were clinically depressed; measures of depression included the Beck Depression Inventory, Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, and a measure of social adjustment. A broad multivariate assessment was conducted of pretreatment leader characteristics, leader behavior and style during treatment, group behavior and process, and depression outcome. Results indicate that leaders differed significantly on behavioral and group-process measures, but differences in depression outcome between leaders did not attain statistical significance. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative benefits of assertion or cognitive self-control treatment for depression as a function of proficiency in each domain.

Compared responses to an assertion training and a cognitive self-control treatment as a function of 28 depressed females' (mean age 40 yrs) initial assertion and cognitive self-control skills. 16 other Ss served as waiting list controls. All Ss were assessed on measures including the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Beck Depression Inventory, and Rathus Assertiveness Schedule. It was predicted that (a) reductions in depression would be greater for treated as compared to waiting-list control conditions and (b) Ss low in a skill (cognitive or assertion) would benefit most from treatment addressing that skill. Only the 1st prediction was supported; treated Ss obtained greater depression reduction than controls. Neither cognitive nor assertion skill level significantly predicted response to the treatments. Effects of the treatments were not specific to targeted skills, and treatment had a significant impact only on cognitive self-control skill. Implications for skills-deficit models of depression therapy are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression, pain, and pain behavior.

Examined the degree to which depression predicted pain and pain behavior by administering the Beck Depression Inventory to 114 male and 93 female low back pain patients (mean age 41.6 yrs). Observations of pain behaviors during physical examination, ratings of pain, and measures of activity level and medication intake were taken on each S. Regression analyses revealed that depression and physical findings were the most important predictors of pain and pain behavior. Although the proportion of variance attributed to depression was modest, it was significant even after controlling for demographic and medical status variables. Ratings of pain severity and use of sedatives/hypnotics were higher among females than males, and depressed Ss were more likely than others to be taking narcotic medications. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of neonatal risk, maternal attitude, and cognitive style on early postpartum adjustment.

Attempted to document clinical observations of increased psychological stress among mothers of at-risk infants. Ss were 100 mothers, primarily from low-socioeconomic and minority groups, who had recently delivered infants representing a wide range of neonatal conditions. Assessments conducted between Postpartum Days 1–5 included the Depression Check List, State–Trait Anxiety Inventory, Neonatal Perception Inventory, Embedded Figures Test, Maternal Attitude Toward Pregnancy Instrument, and background variables. Multiple regression and correlational analyses confirmed the hypotheses that higher levels of neonatal risk were related to higher levels of depression and anxiety and to more negative perceptions of the newborn. Negative maternal attitudes toward pregnancy and childbirth were significantly related to postpartum anxiety but not to depression or perception of the newborn. Field dependence–independence was not associated with the postpartum adjustment measures. Significant relationships were also detected between age and postpartum anxiety and between cesarean section delivery and positive perceptions of the newborn. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Similarity and uniqueness: The effects of attribute type, relevance, and individual differences in self-esteem and depression.

Predicted, on the basis of a self-validation perspective, that distortions in consensus estimates would vary as a function of attribute type (opinions [Os] vs abilities [As]), relevance of the attribute, and individual differences in self-esteem and depression. 189 undergraduates who had completed the Texas Social Behavior Inventory and the Beck Depression Inventory rated themselves on 7 O and A dimensions. Then they estimated the percentage of the other students who held each O/A position and rank-ordered the Os/As for personal relevance. Absolute and directional accuracy scores were computed (comparing estimated percentages with actual percentages in the sample), as well as false consensus effect (FCE) scores (comparing estimates of Ss holding and not holding a particular position). Ss overestimated consensus for their Os and low As but underestimated consensus for their high As. Although Ss exhibited a larger FCE on Os than As, there was a reliable FCE for both attributes. Relevance affected the magnitude of these biases. Higher opinion relevance was associated with increased accuracy, lower FCE scores, and smaller overestimates. Higher ability relevance was associated with decreased accuracy, greater overestimation on low As, and greater underestimation on high As. Low self-esteem and depressed Ss overestimated consensus on Os and underestimated consensus on As less than high self-esteem and nondepressed Ss. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pregnancy problems, postpartum depression, and early mother–infant interactions.

24 women (mean age 24 yrs) who had received ultrasound examinations and psychological interviews during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy were subsequently divided into a group of 12 Ss who had reported pregnancy problems (marital difficulties and ambivalence about the child) and another group of 12 Ss who had not. Ss were then observed at 3–5 mo postpartum in interactions with their infants and were given the Beck Depression Inventory, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Nowicki-Strickland Internal–External Control Scale for Adults, measures of mothers' and infants' temperament, and a maternal developmental expectations and childrearing attitudes scale. The mothers who had experienced pregnancy problems were more depressed, anxious, and externalizing postpartum and expressed more punitive childrearing attitudes. These depressed mothers and their infants showed less optimal interaction behaviors. Results suggest that postpartum depression can be predicted from a simple set of questions regarding the mother's negative feelings about her marriage and her expectant child during the prenatal period. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood and weight loss in a behavioral treatment program.

76 obese patients (average age 40 yrs) participating in 2 consecutive behavioral treatment programs completed either the Symptom Check List (SCL-90) and a mood scale (Program A) or the SCL-90, a mood scale, the Beck Depression Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Program B). Weight losses averaged 12.2 lbs (5.55 kg) during the 10-wk program. Positive changes in mood were reported during this interval, and these changes appeared to be related to changes in weight. There was no evidence that Ss with juvenile-onset obesity had more negative reactions to dieting than Ss with adult-onset obesity or that dropping out was a response to increased depression. Pretreatment mood measures were not linearly related to success in the program, but evidence of a nonlinear relationship was observed. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)