A theory of criterion setting: An alternative to the attention band and response ratio hypotheses in magnitude estimation and cross-modality matching.

Discusses the attention band and response ratio hypotheses of D. M. Green and R. D. Luce (1974) and Luce and Green (1974) and notes some difficulties. An alternative hypothesis is put forward, based on a Thurstonian model for magnitude estimation in which the presented stimulus intensities are subjected to a logarithmic transformation. Response criteria are then applied to the resulting quantities to select corresponding responses. The setting and maintenance of these response criteria are accounted for by a theory of criterion setting previously developed by the present author and T. C. Williams (1984). A similar model is developed for cross-modality matching, and it is shown that these models can predict the V pattern for the coefficient of variation of response ratios, can predict the inverted V pattern for correlations between successive responses, and can account for some of the difficulties found in the literature. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict and criterion setting in recognition memory.

Recognition memory requires both retrieval processes and control processes such as criterion setting. Decision criteria were manipulated by offering different payoffs for correct "old" versus "new" responses. Criterion setting influenced the following late-occurring (1,000+ ms), conflict-sensitive event-related brain potential (ERP) components: the stimulus-locked late posterior negativity (LPN) and the response-locked error-related negativity (ERN). The LPN-ERN were most negative to hits under conservative payoff conditions involving conflict between the correct old response and the payoff for new responses. This same conservative-hit condition was most frequently associated with response reversals when fast initial judgments were followed by slower judgments. Postresponse ERP activity may index conflict-sensitive processes underlying postretrieval cognitive control mechanisms involved with assessing responses to current items and updating response criteria on later trials. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A sequential design for psychophysical experiments: an application to estimating timing of sensory events

An experimental subject sequentially receives different levels of a stimulus, and data are recorded on response or non-response to the stimulus. To ensure that the subject cannot predict the next stimulus level based on previous stimulus levels, a randomized design, based on a generalized Pólya urn model, is used to allocate the stimulus levels. The goal of the experiment is to elicit information efficiently about the relationship between stimulus level and response (either for an individual subject or a group of independent subjects), by estimating quantiles of the stimulus-response curve. Our design allocates stimulus levels unimodally and symmetrically around the unknown median of the stimulus-response curve. We discuss estimation under a broad family of distributions and also fully discuss design issues and options. This design was used for an experiment in neurophysiology in humans to estimate the timing of onset of kinesthetic stimuli. Such psychophysical studies can increase our understanding of normal and pathological function. We present data from that experiment.     

Target location probability effects in visual search: An effect of sequential dependencies.

Target location probability was manipulated in a visual search task. When the target was twice as likely to appear on 1 side of the display as the other, manual button-press response times were faster (Experiment 1A) and first saccades were more frequently directed (Experiment 1B) to the more probable locations. When the target appeared with equal probability at each location in this search task, performance benefited from repetition of target location in the preceding trials (Experiment 2). When the trial sequence was constrained so that target location did not repeat within a series of 4 trials, there was no longer an advantage for more probable locations (Experiment 3). The authors conclude that the search benefits for more probable locations resulted from short-term target location repetitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of stimulus information and number of stimuli on sequential dependencies in absolute identification.

Three absolute identification experiments examined the effects on sequential dependencies of 2 factors: stimulus information and the number of stimuli used. Data were analyzed by multivariate information analysis. In Exp 1 with 5 university studentswith experience in absolute identification experiments, the stimulus modality was pure tone frequency under masking and no-masking conditions and 4, 6 10, and 16 tones were used. In Exp 2 with 5 university students, luminance levels of light circles were used as stimuli and number of luminance levels was 10 or 16. In Exp 3 with 6 university students, the stimuli were pointer positions along a horizontal line and they were presented either within a small or a large range to manipulate the stimulus information available. Results show that the sequential dependencies became larger as the stimulus information was decreased and as the number of stimuli was increased. Results are discussed in the context of models of sequential dependencies. Results of a multiple regression analysis on the data were compared with those of the information analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On averaging judges' ratings to increase their correlation with an external criterion.

It is well-known that the ratings of judges become more reliable as more judges' ratings are averaged. Furthermore, more reliable measures are expected to be more valid. However, empirical data do not exist which show that the averaged ratings of more judges are in fact more valid. In this study, 2 groups of 10 judges (clinicians and students) rated a patient's mood from speech samples taken at different times during psychotherapy. The judges' ratings were averaged and then correlated with an objective measure of anxiety based upon the patient's speech disruptions. The correlations did increase (up to a theoretical asymptote) as the number of judges increased. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A theory of visual information acquisition and visual memory with special application to intensity-duration trade-offs.

Describes a theory of memory for visual material in which the visual system acts as a linear filter operating on a stimulus to produce a function, a(t), relating some sensory response to t (the time since stimulus onset). Stimulus information is acquired at a rate proportional to the product of the magnitude by which a(t) exceeds some threshold, and the amount of as-yet-unacquired information. Recall performance is assumed to equal the proportion of acquired information. The theory accounts for data from 2 digit-recall experiments in which stimulus temporal waveform was manipulated. The authors comment on the theory's account of the relation between 2 perceptual events: the phenomenological experience of the stimulus, and the memory representation that accrues from stimulus presentation. It is asserted that these 2 events, although influenced by different variables, can be viewed as resulting from 2 characteristics of the same sensory-response function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An approach to an objective criterion for research managers.

Traditional clinical rating practices for evaluating research-manager performance are mainly subjective and fail to objectively quantify performance. This research shows that quantification is possible using operation-research techniques for group-centered evaluation. The technique was tested by evaluating manager performance in 4 dissimilar departments averaging 19 professional men each. An upper-management executive supplied comparative clinical ratings. A mathematical model provided a framework permitting objective study of each department's contribution in relation to company goals. The technique has exceptional analytical qualities and permits convenient quantification of research-manager performance. The results suggest that the validity of the clinical, subjective approach to management evaluation should be questioned. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of three approaches to criterion measurement.

3 different criterion measures were used to assess comparative job competency of 1711 workers in 16 occupations. These were used in conjunction with the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) aptitude scores to establish prediction patterns of occupational success. Rating A was job oriented, Rating B was behavior oriented, and Rating C was trait oriented. The 3 scales are described and the distribution of highest r's with GATB aptitudes is given as an empirical means of determining the relative effectiveness of the 3 approaches to criterion measurement. Conclusions are: (a) Ratings A and C are generally more useful than Rating B; (b) use of Rating A may well be justified, despite the time and expense involved if the occupations under consideration are "white-collar" and predictor aptitudes are already identified; and (c) the more economical Rating C appears to be most useful for "blue-collar" occupations and for exploratory studies to identify predictor batteries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A mass transport theory for interphase precipitation with application to vanadium steels

A mass transport theory is developed for interphase precipitation reactions in binary and pseudobinary systems where constant concentrations of solute are maintained at the interphase boundary. The theory presents exact solutions to the problem of diffusion-controlled growth involving the coupled motion of two boundaries. It is generally applicable to interphase pre-cipitation in both solid-solid and solid-liquid systems. Aspects of the theory are discussed with reference to the interphase precipitation reaction in model iron-carbon-vanadium alloys.     

Hindsight bias in an application of the Angoff method for setting cutoff scores.

This study used the hindsight bias literature to examine the effects of providing test item answers on the level and predictive accuracy of Angoff cutoff score judgments. Subjects, randomly assigned to either an answers or a no-answers group, made Angoff judgments on items testing knowledge of driving law and vehicle operation. Items were categorized into subtests based on empirical difficulty. Results indicated that providing answers interacted with subtest difficulty to influence the level of Angoff judgments. On the easiest subtest, those in the answers group made higher judgments than did those in the no-answers group; the reverse effect was observed on the most difficult subtest. Subjects in the answers group more accurately predicted empirical item difficulties than did subjects in the no-answers group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An application of operant conditioning to abseentism in a hospital setting.

Used 2 financial reward systems in a hospital setting to reduce absenteeism among 92 nurses, ward clerks, and nursing assistants. Six nursing units were randomly assigned to 1 of the 2 reward systems. System A permitted Ss to become eligible for cash prize drawings of $20 if they evidenced no absenteeism during a 3-wk period. System B allowed Ss to become eligible for $20 prize drawings if they were not absent on 8 dates randomly selected from the 3-wk period. Both reward systems resulted in significant decreases in absenteeism, and no significant differences were obtained between the 2 systems. Also, point-biserial correlations relating income level and absenteeism yielded nonsignificant results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining a classwide application of cover-copy-compare with and without goal setting to enhance mathematics fluency.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of cover-copy-compare alone and combined with two forms of goal setting to a control condition on the mathematics fluency of 173 third-grade students. Treatment sessions occurred twice weekly for a total of 6 weeks, and multilevel modeling was used to examine progress across intervention sessions. Results suggested that combining cover-copy-compare with goal setting (problems correct) leads to steeper slopes and higher final scores than most other treatment conditions, the effects of which were retained over 1 month and generalized to similar stimulus conditions. Initial scores on a third-grade general outcome measure significantly affected growth over time but not final score. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The transfer effect in artificial grammar learning: Reappraising the evidence on the transfer of sequential dependencies.

Exposure to sequences of elements generated by an artificial grammar enables observers to classify new sequences presented either with the same (within-domain) or different (across-domain) vocabulary elements as being well- or ill-formed according to that grammar (A. S. Reber, 1969). Experiment 1 replicated G. T. M. Altmann, Z. Dienes, and A. Goode's (1995) demonstration of this effect, but inspection of hits and correct rejections revealed that a single cue was used to reject a subset of the ungrammatical sequences. Experiment 2 removed this cue, and participants no longer discriminated between grammatical and ungrammatical sequences in the novel domain. The authors conclude that G. T. M. Altmann et al.'s demonstration of discrimination in the novel domain did not necessitate the application of knowledge pertaining to sequential dependencies. Implications of the data for other studies, showing abstraction of knowledge across test sequences, are also considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The application of separation-individuation theory to analytic group psychotherapy.

Argues that analytic group psychotherapy can be a highly effective modality in the treatment of patients with deficits in psychic structure. It is important to develop treatment approaches that integrate theory and technique and can be therapeutically directed toward developmental lesions in phase-appropriate ways. The application of separation-individuation theory is discussed as one useful model to facilitate change in patients with developmental arrests. This conceptual framework is also valuable in understanding how individuals may use the group to enhance personal growth and/or to perpetuate symbiosis. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An application of signal detection theory with finite mixture distributions to source discrimination.

A mixture extension of signal detection theory is applied to source discrimination. The basic idea of the approach is that only a portion of the sources (say A or B) of items to be discriminated is encoded or attended to during the study period. As a result, in addition to 2 underlying probability distributions associated with the 2 sources, there is a 3rd distribution that represents items for which sources were not attended to. Thus, over trials, the observed response results from a mixture of an attended (A or B) distribution and a nonattended distribution. The situation differs in an interesting way from detection in that, for detection, there is mixing only on signal trials and not on noise trials, whereas for discrimination, there is mixing on both A and B trials. Predictions of the mixture model are examined for data from several recent studies and in a new experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prediction of an intermediate criterion of combat effectiveness with a biographical inventory.

If, according to biographical data, an individual has tended to engage in risky activities such as contact sports, playing poker, etc., will he also tend to be more effective in combat? Using a Risk Scale and a Peer Rating Scale, 57 seniors enrolled in Army ROTC courses were tested. The criterion was selection of combat and noncombat assignments. For combat effectiveness and leadership, the Risk Scale showed a significant difference in the expected direction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The application of learning theory to the treatment of tics.

"It was predicted that if… tics were evoked voluntarily under conditions of massed practice, a negative habit of 'not doing the tic' should be built up, resulting ultimately in the extinction of the tics and that this extinction should generalize beyond the test situation. The results of a number of experiments support the validity of the theory. There was a significant decline in the ability to respond voluntarily under various conditions of massed practice and rest." (26 ref.) From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:1JT75Y. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note on the criterion.

The concept of the criterion in much applied research has implied the possibility of identifying a single, ultimate measure against which predictors should be correlated. It is argued that the criterion has been overemphasized with the result that complexities of predicting the many facets of job success have been ignored in favor of overly simplified studies designed to relate predictors to single measures of job success. Applied psychologists should give more emphasis to construct validation and make an effort to learn more about the meaning of test scores and other predictors in terms of multiple dimensions of behavior. Information available on the Engineering Research Key of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank is presented in order to illustrate the pattern of validation research recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging.

The purpose of this review is to extend the existing application of the frontal lobe hypothesis of cognitive aging beyond the limited work on inhibitory control (F. N. Dempster, see record 1992-22951-001) to include memory processes supported by the prefrontal cortex. To establish a background for this analysis, I review existing models of prefrontal cortex function and present a synthesized model that includes a general function of temporal integration, supported by 4 specific processes: prospective memory, retrospective memory, interference control, and inhibition of prepotent responses. I found the frontal lobe hypothesis to perform well, with the exception of an inability to account for age-related declines in item recall and recognition memory, possibly a result of age-related declines in medial temporal function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)