Effects of interviewer questions and response type on compliance: An analogue study.

67 clients were interviewed by 4 counselors to examine the relative effects of the type of questions asked, either positive or negative, and of interviewer feedback, positive or neutral, on behavioral compliance by means of a 2?×?2 analog design. The effects of the treatment procedures on participant compliance were assessed through a variety of behavioral measures including actual weight loss. Contrary to expectations, only an effect for the type of interviewer feedback was observed with little impact noted for type of questions. Clients who received positive feedback from the interviewers consistently complied more with interviewer requests and recommendations, including losing more weight and returning more frequently, than did those who received neutral feedback. Interpretations of these findings and implications for initial interviewing strategies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masochism: An empirical analysis.

Masochistic behavior is defined as a change in response to punishing stimuli which may take the form of simple desensitization at one extreme to continued, self-aversive stimulation at the other. Experimental findings reflecting such changes are cited and some of the conditions necessary for demonstrating these effects are analyzed. The manner in which the scheduling of events may be involved is also suggested. The approach which is advocated seems to offer a fruitful alternative to current popular conceptions of masochism. (35 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trends in psychology: An empirical issue.

Responds to comments by M. J. Tagler, K. R. Gibson, M. P. Martens, S. Leigland , P. C. Friman et al, and G. N. Martin (see records 2000-13816-016, 2000-13816-017, 2000-13816-018, 2000-13816-019, 2000-13816-020, and 2000-13816-021) on R. W. Robins et al's (see record 1999-00297-003) article which examined trends in the prominence of 4 major schools of psychology. Methodological issues are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functional turnover: An empirical assessment.

Proposed that the traditional method of categorizing employee turnover as voluntary or involuntary has the effect of overstating the gravity of turnover on the organization. A recently suggested taxonomy was used to identify the extent of functional/dysfunctional and unavoidable/controllable employee separations. Analysis of data on employees (N?=?1,389) of Western bank branches, which considers both the replaceability and quality of departing employees, indicated substantial levels of functional (71%) and unavoidable (52%) turnover. Results suggest that the traditional dichotomy may in fact substantially overstate the impact of voluntary turnover. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An empirical approach to studying psychoanalytic process.

This study was a pilot attempt to investigate psychoanalytic process from an empirical perspective. We randomly selected early and late sessions from an audiotaped psychoanalysis (N = 324 sessions) and scored them using a modified form of the Gill-Hoffman (1982) system. We analyzed these scores via Markov models and comparative probability tests. The coding scheme was reliable, although the percentage of interrater agreement for ratings of patient insight was low. Despite this measurement error, the study yielded interesting findings concerning early and late hours. Across early and late sessions, interpretations facilitated patient transference insight, compared to other interventions within the same hours. The patient was somewhat more likely to follow one insight with a second during late hours. There were several other suggestions of longitudinal change toward greater patient mastery. We also explored the interrelationship between type of interpretation and patient productivity of transference insight. The findings indicated that the piloted method represents a useful way to pinpoint theoretically important interactions for empirical investigation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality-related problems in living: An empirical approach.

A proposal for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM–V) is to separate the diagnosis of mental disorder from the assessment of impairment or disability. A separation of the assessment of traits and impairment is consistent with the five-factor model (FFM) procedure for the diagnosis of a personality disorder, which first assesses for the presence of personality traits, followed by an assessment of impairments associated with a particular trait elevation. The current study tested the hypothesis that the FFM has specific implications with respect to the 3 fundamental components of personality disorder as provided in the American Psychiatric Association's (2000) diagnostic manual, concerning social impairment, occupational impairment, and distress. These hypotheses were confirmed in a sample of 79 persons who were currently or recently in psychological treatment. Implications of the findings for a conceptualization of personality disorder and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in adjustment to bereavement: An empirical and theoretical review.

The loss of a marital partner results in substantial increases in morbidity and mortality among both men and women, but the effects are relatively greater for widowers than for widows in the acute grieving period. Evidence is reviewed, and explanations of the pattern are examined. An interpretation in terms of gender differences in social support (M. Stroebe & W. Stroebe, 1983), although plausible, has not yet been empirically confirmed. Likewise, with respect to gender differences in coping styles, women are more confrontive and expressive of their emotions than men, but there has been little validation of the generally accepted grief work hypothesis (working through grief by women brings about their better recovery). Cognitive processes underlying effective coping with bereavement are analyzed, and a stressor-specific framework, the dual process model of coping with loss, is suggested to help explain gender differences in health outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial effects in counseling-like interviews: An experimental analogue.

Examined racial E effects in counseling-like interviews employing the verbal operant-conditioning paradigm. The general objective was to determine whether significant differences in the conditionability of 12 Black and 12 White female college students, as measured by their emission of positive and negative self-reference emotional affect statements, would obtain when the verbal reinforcement was provided by 2 Black and 2 White Es. A postexperimental inquiry assessed Ss' perceptions of the interviews and their level of awareness of the Es' to influence their verbal behavior. While no definitive conclusions were reached, this study demonstrates that the verbal operant-conditioning paradigm can be used to investigate racial effects on verbal behavior in the counseling interview. Through the use of multiple, biracial Es and Ss, this study goes a step further than other verbal operant-conditioning studies that have explored racial E effects. The absence of significant differences in the E-S racial interaction suggests that race, per se, may not be the most important variable in the E-S (or counselor-client) relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling influences in social drinking: An experimental analogue.

48 male college students classified as heavy social drinkers were assigned to 1 of 6 groups in a 3 * 2 factorial design. The 1st factor consisted of 3 modeling conditions: exposure to a model who was a heavy consumer of alcohol; a light drinking model; and a no-model control condition. For the 2nd factor, Ss engaged in a brief prior social interaction with the model who played a role that was either warm or cold in emotional quality. Modeling effects were then assessed in a laboratory wine-tasting task in which the S and the model participated together. Ss exposed to the heavy drinking model drank significantly more alcohol than Ss in the low-consumption model and no-model conditions, which did not differ from each other. The prior interaction conditions did not affect drinking behavior. Results are discussed within a theoretical framework that emphasizes the social learning determinants of drinking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anticipating informed consent: An empirical approach.

Discusses the American Psychological Association's ethical standards concerning the misleading of Ss with regard to experimental purposes or procedures, and proposes a "role-play sampling" procedure by which S's likelihood of consent to (and thereby the "reasonableness" of) a proposed experimental procedure can be determined in advance of actual experimentation. The procedure was tested with freshmen and sophomores (N = 106) drawn from the same college population used in 6 published social psychological experiments. Ss examined the experimental procedures used originally in each experiment and indicated their "willingness to consent" to participate in each study. 4 of the 6 experiments had been considered stressful by actual participants; 2 were nonstressful. The effect of varying amounts and kinds of information about each experiment upon consent rates was also examined. Results show both the stress and information factors significantly affected consent rates. Evidence is presented which suggests that the role-play sampling procedure possesses predictive validity in terms of the reaction which may be anticipated from those who subsequently participate in the actual experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compatibility between cotherapists: An empirical report.

Investigated factors contributing to perceived compatibility of 42 cotherapists participating in 24 cotherapy pairs. Measures indicated that cotherapists felt compatible with their partners, but their scores did not correlate significantly with those of their supervisors. Cotherapy pairs in which Ss described themselves similarly with respect to self-disclosure and directiveness were more likely to experience themselves as compatible. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Orality and depression: An empirical study.

Despite much theoretical speculation and some indirect evidence, no study has empirically assessed the relationship of orality to depression. In the present investigation, two separate samples of male college students (N? = 276; N? = 141) completed both the Rorschach test and the Depression Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ). More DEQ items correlated significantly with a Rorschach orality measure than would be expected by chance, but the magnitude of these correlations was small. Item analysis suggests that dependency is less a factor in depression than is a personality constellation marked by egocentrism, immaturity, fear of rejection, helplessness, and lack of integration. The results of this study are limited by its use of nonclinically disturbed male subjects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of counselor self-disclosure: An analogue study.

120 male and 120 female university students viewed a videotaped vignette of a simulated counseling session. Counselor self-disclosure was manipulated so that Ss were presented a counselor exhibiting no disclosure, interpersonal disclosure, or intrapersonal disclosure. Ss rated these counselors across a variety of professional (e.g., competency) and personal (e.g., likability) dimensions. Results reveal that counselors who self-disclose are evaluated significantly more favorably than counselors who do not. There is no evidence that disclosing counselors are viewed as less competent or less mentally healthy as suggested in previous research. The implications of these findings for further research on counselor self-disclosure and for clinical practice are explored. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative factors in brief psychotherapy: An empirical assessment.

18 male undergraduates with symptoms of depression, anxiety, and unsatisfying interpersonal relationships were seen in brief therapy by professional psychodynamic and experiential therapists. Judges rated audiotapes of early therapy sessions using the Vanderbilt Negative Indicators Scale (VNIS), which consists of 5 subscales representing factors believed to deter therapeutic progress. The hypothesis that negative factors in therapy, as assessed by the VNIS, would be inversely related to outcome was confirmed. The Errors in Technique subscale was the most consistent predictor of outcome. Subscales tapping deficiencies in Patient Qualities and the Patient–Therapist Interaction as well as Global Session Ratings were also related to outcome, although ratings of Therapist Personal Qualities were not. VNIS ratings were more strongly related to the outcome of psychodynamic therapy than experiential therapy and were more often associated with the therapist's and independent clinician's assessments of outcome than the patient's assessment of outcome. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Panic attacks in the nonclinical population: An empirical approach to case identification.

Although self-reports of panic attacks are common among student populations, it is not clear that their panic experiences are actually comparable to those of patients with clinical anxiety disorders. An empirical approach was taken to this problem by using a cluster analysis procedure to identify Ss within 2 samples of university students who reported panic attack symptom profiles that resembled those of patients with panic disorder. Such empirically defined "clinical" panic attacks were reported by 7 and 8.1% of the 2 samples. This predominantly female group accounted for most of the increased psychopathology that has been reported in previous studies of nonclinical panic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in assertive behavior: An empirical investigation.

Assertion training for women has been justified on the basis that women are generally less assertive than men or that women have unique problems in being assertive. A review of the literature for sex-related data from self-report measures of assertion indicated that without exception males report higher frequencies of assertive behavior than females. The means are significantly different, however, for only 4 (29%) of the 14 samples reviewed. Differential responding for males and females on individual items from the Adult Self Expression Scale was investigated using 4 samples of a total of 294 male and 408 female Ss. Men reported themselves as more assertive than women on items dealing with bosses and supervisors. Men also reported themselves as being more outspoken when stating opinions and as taking the initiative more readily in social contacts with members of the opposite sex. Women, on the other hand, reported themselves as more assertive in expressing love, affection, and compliments, as well as expressing anger to one's parents. The question of how these sex differences in assertive behavior are affected in assertion-training groups composed entirely of women is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapeutic relationship in behavior therapy: An empirical analysis.

Investigated the determinants and predictive utility of the client's perception of the therapeutic relationship (CPTR) in the context of a behavior therapy clinical research project evaluating 3 approaches to assertion training. 39 22–60 yr old volunteers were studied. Measures included the Rathus Assertiveness Scale, the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, the Fear of Negative Evaluation Questionnaire, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, and the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist. Individual differences in therapists were a significant determinant of CPTR. CPTR was an effective predictor of dropping out when measured early in therapy, and of immediate posttherapy client gains when measured in a mid- to late therapy session, but not of long-term maintenance of client improvements. Patterns of therapist behavior that were predictive of CPTR at 3 time points in therapy are delineated. It is speculated that CPTR is largely a function of the degree to which the client's expectation of the therapist and the consequences of therapy are being fulfilled. It is concluded that CPTR has significant predictive value, and perhaps also causal impact, in behavior therapy. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of analogies in therapeutic situations: An analogue study.

141 participants read vignettes that described stressors encountered by college students. Each vignettes also included information about the students' hobby and therapeutic advice the students might follow to deal with their stressors. This advice was expressed in either a literal or an analogical form. Ss were asked to read the vignettes from the perspective of a therapist, a patient, or an observer, and to rate the advice component of each vignette for helpfulness. Analogical advice was rated as significantly more helpful than literal advice on a variety of questions. A surprise cued-recall memory test showed that Ss in the analogical condition but not in the literal condition remembered information according to their assigned role. In the role of patients, Ss showed greatest recall for the therapeutic advice, but in the role of therapists, they showed greatest recall for the students' stressors. In line with a growing literature in cognitive psychology, these results show that the impact of analogies in therapeutic interactions is a combined is a combined function of the material to be processed and the role of the person processing it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An empirical investigation of individual differences in time to learn.

Studied the magnitude and stability of individual differences in the amount of time required to achieve a criterion level of performance (time-to-criterion). Time-to-criterion was defined by (a) the amount of elapsed time and (b) the amount of on-task time required to attain the criterion. 90 8th graders were randomly assigned either to a mastery learning class in which all Ss were helped to attain an 85% mastery standard or to 1 of 2 nonmastery classes. Ss learned a 3-unit sequence of programmed material in matrix arithmetic. Results from the 82 Ss who completed the study indicate that time-to-criterion (defined in both manners) was an alterable human characteristic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)