Correction to Pike.

Reports an error in "Comparison of convolution and matrix distributed memory systems for associative recall and recognition" by Ray Pike (Psychological Review, 1984[Jul], Vol 91[3], 281-294). In this article, there were two erroneous sentences, one on page 284 and one on page 285. The sentences are corrected in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1984-27853-001.) Compares 2 closely related distributed memory models in terms of plausibility; arithmetic simplicity; economy of storage space; and ability to account for associative, similarity, and order data in recall and recognition. It is argued that the storage-retrieval system brought about by the convolution-correlation concept outlined by M. A. Eich (see record 1983-04922-001) and B. B. Murdock (see record 1983-04936-001) is neurally implausible, necessitates more complex analyses, and is less economical in storage space than is the matrix memory concept described by J. A. Anderson et al (see record 1978-22353-001). It is shown that the matrix model can easily account for associative symmetry-asymmetry data and for item similarity effects. Means and variances of operating strength for various recall and recognition situations, modeled by the matrix system, are presented, and it is shown how signal-to-noise ratios can be derived. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration, and CHARM.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 92(4) of Psychological Review (see record 2008-10981-001). Equation 5 on page 11 was incorrect. The correct equation is given in the erratum.] A model of cued recall called CHARM (composite holographic associative recall model) is applied to several issues that have been investigated within the depth-of-processing framework. It is shown that, given some straightforward, empirically testable assumptions about the representations of the to-be-remembered items themselves, CHARM can account for the main effect of depth of processing, the problem of the negatives, encoding–specificity interactions, and both facilitative and inhibitory effects of elaboration. The CHARM model is extended to encompass some depth-of-processing effects found in recognition memory. The highly interactive associative, storage, and retrieval mechanisms in the CHARM model are discussed. (90 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration, and CHARM": Correction to Eich.

Reports an error in "Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration, and CHARM" by Janet M. Eich (Psychological Review, 1985[Jan], Vol 92[1], 1-38). Equation 5 on page 11 was incorrect. The correct equation is provided in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1985-13697-001.) A model of cued recall called CHARM (composite holographic associative recall model) is applied to several issues that have been investigated within the depth-of-processing framework. It is shown that, given some straightforward, empirically testable assumptions about the representations of the to-be-remembered items themselves, CHARM can account for the main effect of depth of processing, the problem of the negatives, encoding–specificity interactions, and both facilitative and inhibitory effects of elaboration. The CHARM model is extended to encompass some depth-of-processing effects found in recognition memory. The highly interactive associative, storage, and retrieval mechanisms in the CHARM model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

CHARM is not enough: Comments on Eich's model of cued recall.

Comments on the claim of J. M. Eich (see record 1983-04922-001) that the proposed composite holographic associative recall model (CHARM) provides a good account of the empirical findings by the present authors (see record 1973-20189-001) that are associated with the levels-of-processing approach to the study of memory. It is asserted that although CHARM simulates the results of several relevant studies, it does so by making assumptions different from those embodied in levels of processing. In particular, Eich's central assumption that well-remembered events are characterized by high levels of similarity between the target item and its context is questioned. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

More on recognition and recall in amnesics.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 15(3) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (see record 2008-10697-001). In this article, the authors failed to specify how the group of amnesics that they test in their article differed from the nonalcoholic amnesics tested in Hirst, Johnson, Kim, Phelps, Risse, and Volpe (1986). The pertinent statistics are given in the erratum. Additionally, in the last sentence on page 760, the degrees of freedom for the t test should be 8 instead of 10.] Hirst et al. (1986) reported that amnesic forced-choice recognition was relatively preserved when compared with amnesic recall. They equated normal recognition and amnesic recognition by extending exposure time for the amnesics and then comparing amnesic recall and normal recall. Amnesic recall was worse than normal recall, despite equated recognition. We conducted two experiments to extend that result. Experiment 1 established that the findings of Hirst et al. are not paradigm specific and hold when amnesic recognition and normal recognition are equated by increasing the retention interval for normals. In Experiment 2 we further established the generality of the result by examining yes–no recognition. Findings further specify the selective nature of the direct memory deficits in amnesics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A retrieval model for both recognition and recall.

Extended the search of associative memory model for recall proposed by J. G. Raaijmakers and R. M. Shiffrin (see record 1981-20491-001) by assuming that a familiarity process is used for recognition. The recall model posits cue-dependent probabilistic sampling and recovery from an associative network. The present recognition model is closely related to the recall model because the total episodic activation due to the context and item cues is used in recall as a basis for sampling and in recognition to make a decision. The model, formalized in a computer simulation program, correctly predicts a number of findings in the literature as well as the results from an experiment on the word-frequency effect in which 80 undergraduates participated. (3? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of order information in free recall: Application to the word-frequency effect.

According to an order-encoding account of free recall, the free recall of unrelated words is organized according to their order of presentation in the study list, with unusual items attracting more attentional resources to item encoding than usual items, but at the expense of order encoding. This account correctly predicted (a) better free recall and serial-order memory for high-frequency (HF) than low-frequency (LF) words in pure lists and (b) equivalent serial-order memory for HF and LF words but superior recall of LF words in mixed lists. The mixed-list recall results and the finding that overall list recall did not depend on the proportion of HF words comprising a list are inconsistent with G. Gillund and R. M. Shiffrin's (see record 1984-08340-001) search of associative memory (SAM) explanation. The order-encoding account of the differential effects of other variables (e.g., generation and bizarreness) on free recall in pure versus mixed lists is also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How automatic are social judgments?

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 50(2) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2008-10961-001). There are errors in the labeling of the ordinates of the figures. The correct labeling is provided in the erratum.] Adapted the encoding-specificity paradigm developed by D. Thomson and E. Tulving (see record 1971-03487-001) to test 3 operational indicants of automatism (absence of intention, of interference from other mental activity, and of awareness). Recruited for a digit-recall study, 95 undergraduate students read sentences describing actions during the retention interval of either an easy or a difficult digit-recall task. Later, sentence recall was cued by (a) disposition cues, (b) strong semantic associates to the sentence actor, or (c) words representing the gist of the sentence, or (d) sentence recall was not cued. Awareness was measured immediately after the last sentence was read. Disposition-cued recall was higher than (b) or (d) and was unaffected by digit recall difficulty. Awareness of making dispositional inferences was only weakly correlated with disposition-cued recall. Results suggest that disposition inferences occurred at encoding, without intention, without interference by differential drain on processing capacity, and with little awareness. Thus, making dispositional inferences seems to be largely, but not entirely, automatic. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Forced-choice associative recognition: Implications for global-memory models.

Associative recognition requires Ss to discriminate intact from rearranged test pairs. In a 3-alternative forced-choice procedure, an intact test pair is tested against 2 rearranged distractors which may overlap, by sharing a common word in each test pair alternative (OLAP), or may not share words (NOLAP). With the exception of B. B. Murdock's (see record 1983-04936-001) theory of distributed associative memory (TODAM), current global matching models predict that forced-choice performance will be better for OLAP than for NOLAP test trials. TODAM can predict either an OLAP advantage or no difference between OLAP and NOLAP test conditions. The performance of the models is produced by fundamental statistical properties, and with the exception of TODAM, the OLAP advantage cannot be eliminated by varying parameters. Results of 3 experiments, however, show a NOLAP advantage. The implications of these results for global matching models and the relationship between recall and recognition are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traits and social stereotypes: Efficiency differences in social information processing.

Research on the associative structure of social stereotypes and trait-defined categories has shown that stereotypes are associatively richer, more visual, and more distinctive (S. M. Andersen and R. L. Klatzky; see record 1987-34370-001). We hypothesized that stereotypes might also operate more efficiently than trait-defined categories in social information processing. Participants were presented with sentences pairing either a stereotype or a trait label with an overt act or an internal state. Participants judged whether or not the designated target person would be likely to do or to experience what was described in the sentence. As predicted, participants judged the stereotype sentences more quickly than the trait sentences. An incidental recall test of memory for the target terms, cued by the acts and states, showed that participants were also better able to remember the stereotypes than the traits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When are social judgments made? Evidence for the spontaneousness of trait inferences.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 50(2) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2008-10962-001). There are errors in the labeling of Figure 1 on p. 244. The ordinate percentages should be three times greater than indicated. In addition, the algebraic formula in the note for Table 2 on p. 245 is incorrect. The correct ordinate percentages and the correct algebraic formula are provided in the erratum.] Adapted E. Tulving and D. M. Thomson's (see record 2005-09647-002) encoding specificity paradigm for 2 recall experiments with 153 undergraduates to investigate whether Ss would make trait inferences without intentions or instructions at the encoding stage of processing behavioral information. Under memory instructions only, Ss read sentences describing people performing actions that implied traits. Later, Ss recalled each sentence under 1 of 3 cuing conditions: a dispositional cue (e.g., generous); a strong, nondispositional semantic associate to an important sentence word; or no cue. Results show that recall was best when cued by the disposition words. Ss were unaware of having made trait inferences. Interpreted in terms of encoding specificity, findings indicate that Ss unintentionally made trait inferences at encoding. It is suggested that attributions are made spontaneously, as part of the routine comprehension of social events. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

One-trial associative priming of nonwords in young and older adults.

In this article, three experiments in which single-trial associative priming for nonwords was investigated in young and older adults in a pronunciation task are reported. During an encoding task, associative priming was observed for young and older adults, although cued recall was near zero for both groups. Associative priming for young and older adults was found under full attention conditions, but when attention was divided at study, associative priming was observed in Experiment 3, but not in Experiment 2. Divided attention also disrupted recognition memory for new associations in young and older adults. The results limit the generality of findings of age-related decrements in associative priming by showing an absence of such decrements in tasks that do not require elaborative processing during encoding. They also argue against G. Musen and L. Squire's (see record 1993-34212-001) suggestion that formation of new connections in implicit memory requires multiple study opportunities, whereas declarative memory is specialized for rapid acquisition of new associations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incidental concept learning, feature frequency, and correlated properties.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 19(2) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (see record 2008-10487-001). This article included three typographical errors in the statistics. The corrected statistics are provided in the erratum.] Four experiments examined sensitivity to feature frequencies and feature correlations as a function of intentional and incidental concept learning. Feature frequencies were encoded equally well across variations in learning strategies, and although classification decisions in both intentional and incidental conditions preserved correlated features, this sensitivity was achieved through different processes. With intentional learning, sensitivity to correlations resulted from explicit rules, whereas incidental encoding preserved correlations through a similarity-based analogical process. In incidental tasks that promoted exemplar storage, classification decisions were mediated by similarity to retrieval examples, and correlated features were indirectly preserved in this process. Results are discussed in terms of the diversity of encoding processes and representations that can occur with incidental category learning. [An erratum concerning this article appears in Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1993(Mar), Vol 19(2). The statistics on page 211 are corrected.] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrated retrieval cues as a mechanism for priming in retrieval from memory.

Spreading-activation theories are contrasted with composite retrieval-cue theories in priming of associative judgments. Under spreading activation, priming causes a change of memory state from quiet to active before the appearance of a test item. Under retrieval-cue theories, the prime is combined with the test item during retrieval. Spreading-activation models must predict that a relation between the prime and one element of a mispaired test will damage rejection—the partial-overlap prediction. Some retrieval-cue theories avoid this prediction with composite representations. We present one speed-accuracy trade-off and two reaction time experiments that demonstrate substantial discriminative priming (increasing hits more than false alarms) without consistent partial-overlap effects. Results suggest a combined retrieval-cue account of priming and independent storage of composites and parts (e.g., B. B. Murdock; see record 1983-04936-001). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"More on recognition and recall in amnesics": Correction to Hirst, Johnson, Phelps, and Volpe (1988).

Reports an error in "More on recognition and recall in amnesics" by William Hirst, Marcia K. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Phelps and Bruce T. Volpe (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1988[Oct], Vol 14[4], 758-762). In this article, the authors failed to specify how the group of amnesics that they test in their article differed from the nonalcoholic amnesics tested in Hirst, Johnson, Kim, Phelps, Risse, and Volpe (1986). The pertinent statistics are given in the erratum. Additionally, in the last sentence on page 760, the degrees of freedom for the t test should be 8 instead of 10. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1989-16104-001.) Hirst et al. (1986) reported that amnesic forced-choice recognition was relatively preserved when compared with amnesic recall. They equated normal recognition and amnesic recognition by extending exposure time for the amnesics and then comparing amnesic recall and normal recall. Amnesic recall was worse than normal recall, despite equated recognition. We conducted two experiments to extend that result. Experiment 1 established that the findings of Hirst et al. are not paradigm specific and hold when amnesic recognition and normal recognition are equated by increasing the retention interval for normals. In Experiment 2 we further established the generality of the result by examining yes-no recognition. Findings further specify the selective nature of the direct memory deficits in amnesics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of separate and interactive imagery on the recall of movement patterns.

Contrasted separate imagery instructions with interactive imagery instructions on memory for movement patterns. 48 undergraduates were presented pairs of movement patterns and were instructed to form separate images of each pattern or to form interactive images linking the patterns together. Cued recall performance and the organization of free recall was enhanced following interactive imagery instructions compared with separate imagery instructions. Total free recall, however, was similar for interactive and separate imagery. The advantage of interactive imagery over separate imagery in cued recall was attenuated when Ss were given instructions that imposed restrictions on the formation of their interactive images. Several explanations of the memorial consequences of imagery instructions are considered in light of these results, including I. Begg's (see record 1983-04913-001) organization-redintegration account of imagery instructions. (French abstract) (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interdomain transfer between isomorphic topics in algebra and physics.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 15(5) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (see record 2008-10689-001). On page 157, parts of two sentences in the Results and Discussion section were omitted. The corrected sentences are provided in the erratum.] Three experiments examined transfer between 2 isomorphic subdomains of algebra and physics. The two areas were arithmetic-progression problems in algebra and constant-acceleration problems in physics. High school and college students who had learned one of these subtopics were presented with word problems that used either content from the domain they had originally studied or content based on the unfamiliar but analogous domain. Ss who had learned arithmetic progressions were very likely to spontaneously recognize that physics problems involving velocity and distance can be addressed using the same equations. Analysis of problem-solving protocols revealed that the recognition was immediate and that the solutions were a straightforward application of the algebraic method. Such recognition occurred even when the algebraic procedures were taught using example word problems all of which were drawn from a single content area (e.g., "money" problems). In contrast, Ss who had learned the physics topic almost never exhibited any detectable transfer to the isomorphic algebra problems. The results were interpreted in terms of content-free vs content-specific applicability conditions for mathematical procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of mobilization of knowledge on recognition and recall.

Examined the effect of mobilization of knowledge on recall and recognition in 4 experiments, using 170 undergraduates. In Exp I, the mobilization group generated instances from a specified category and received a study list that contained some of these generated items as well as other members of the category that had not been generated. Control Ss received the same study list after they had generated instances from an irrelevant category. Contrary to previous findings by J. Peeck (see record 1983-22657-001), prior mobilization did not facilitate free recall of the generated study-list items and inhibited recall of nongenerated items. This pattern of recall was replicated in Exp II. The inhibitory effect of prior mobilization on nongenerated items was eliminated in Exp III, which used a recognition memory test. In addition, prior mobilization facilitated the recognition of generated study list items. Exp IV found that when knowledge about the mobilized category was limited, prior mobilization did facilitate free recall but only for generated study-list items. An attempt was made to reconcile data with previous results and to specify the conditions under which mobilization facilitates or inhibits subsequent memory performance. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On serial recall: A critique of chaining in the theory of distributed associative memory.

Criticizes 3 aspects of the S. Lewandowsky and B. B. Murdock (see record 1989-14457-001) model for serial recall based on the theory of distributed associative memory. First, recall is based, in the model, on a chain of associations. Once an error has been made, the chain is broken. To lengthen the chain, a tacit response (a facsimile vector) is used as a retrieval probe. It is shown that a facsimile vector is not an effective retrieval cue. Second, the model is biased against items at the beginning of a list, and, because of the bias, response alternatives must be limited in an artificial way. Third, the model implies that recognition failure of recallable items is a routine characteristic of memory-span tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)