Composition, soaking, cooking properties and thermal characteristics of starch of chickpeas, wrinkled peas and smooth peas

We investigated both the distribution of protein, ash and starch in legume (chickpeas, smooth and wrinkled peas) cotyledons, and the soaking and cooking characteristics, including gelatinization and retrogradation, of the starch. There were large differences in composition between different types of legumes and also between the outer and inner parts of legume cotyledons. Wrinkled peas exhibited much higher water absorption during prolonged soaking and there were higher hardness value determined for cooked seeds compared with chickpeas and smooth peas. While the hardness of cooked seeds decreased continuously as cooking time increased to 110 min, all legume starch was fully gelatinized after cooking for 70 min.     

THE EFFECT OF PHYTATE AND FIBER CONTENT ON COOKING QUALITY IN FABA BEANS

Seventy-six faba bean lines were analyzed for their phytic acid content in the whole seeds and in the cotyledons. The fiber content was also determined in 17 Faba bean lines. The seed weights; % testa weight-of the seeds; and % moisture uptake (water imbibition) after overnight soaking in distilled water or increasing concentrations of EDTA solutions were measured and recorded. The relation between the above mentioned dependent variables and the cooking time for seed softening (min.) in 76 faba bean lines was studied and simple and multiple correlation coefficients were computed with a total of 70 operations. Significant correlation coefficients were found between phytic acid content in the cotyledons, % testae weight of the seeds; moisture uptake after soaking the seeds in distilled water overnight and cooking time for 50% softening (min). The faba bean lines 606/ 303; 606/ 308, 608/ 334, 609/ 350, proved to be of excellent cooking quality, since their cooking time for 50% seed softening did not exceed 10 min.     

Saponin content of food plants and some prepared foods

Quantitative thin layer chromatography was used to estimate the saponin content of 20 common food plants and also of foods prepared from some of them. The food plants found to be richest in saponins were chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), soya beans (Glycine max), lucerne (alfalfa) sprouts (Medicago sativa) and varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris (navy beans, haricot beans, kidney beans). Saponins were not destroyed by processing or cooking. They were present in falafels (prepared from chickpeas), canned baked beans, canned broad beans and protein isolate from faba beans. However, the saponin content of a fermented soya bean product (tempe) was only half that of whole soya beans. Guar meal (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) contains saponins but only a trace could be detected in samples of guar gum.     

Nutritional value of feed grade chickpeas for ruminants and pigs

The feeding value of feed grade chickpeas (Kabuli and Desi type) for ruminants and pigs was determined in two studies. Two ruminally fistulated cows were used in the first study to determine the effects of moist heat treatment (127 °C for 10 min) on the ruminal protein degradability of feed grade chickpeas. Heat treatment reduced (P < 0.05) soluble crude protein and increased (P < 0.05) the amount of crude protein associated with neutral detergent fibre for both types of chickpeas. Ruminal degradability of crude protein for Kabuli and Desi chickpeas was reduced by 39 and 33% (P < 0.05) respectively as a result of heating. In the second study, 64 crossbred pigs were each assigned to one of four dietary treatments in a factorial (4 treatments × 2 sexes) design experiment. The experimental barley/wheat‐based diets were supplemented with either soybean meal (control), Kabuli chickpeas (300 g kg⁻¹), Desi chickpeas (300 g kg⁻¹) or field peas (300 g kg⁻¹). Dry matter and gross energy digestibility coefficients, determined using the indicator method, were lower (P < 0.05) for the Desi‐ than for the Kabuli‐supplemented diet. However, no differences were observed in dry matter or gross energy digestibility between the Kabuli chickpea‐supplemented diet and the control or the field pea‐supplemented diet. Diets supplemented with chickpeas or field peas had a lower (P < 0.05) crude protein digestibility than the control diet. Pigs fed either of the chickpea‐supplemented diets during the growing phase gained less (P < 0.05) than pigs fed the control diet. However, during the finishing phase and over the entire experiment, dietary treatment had no effect on pig performance. There were no significant differences in carcass traits between pigs fed any of the four diets. It was concluded that moist heat treatment is an effective method to increase the rumen escape protein value of chickpeas and that the inclusion of feed grade Kabuli or Desi chickpeas in finishing diets up 300 g kg⁻¹ had no detrimental effects on pig performance. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

A comparison of the nutrient digestibility of Desi and Kabuli chickpeas fed to swine

An experiment was conducted to compare the nutritional composition of 16 varieties of chickpeas (Kabuli and Desi) and to determine their nutrient digestibility for swine using the mobile nylon bag technique. The average crude protein content of the Kabuli chickpeas (226 g kg^?1) was lower than that of the Desi chickpeas (235 g kg^?1). Desi chickpeas were higher in acid detergent fibre (145 versus 50 g kg^?1) and neutral detergent fibre (264 versus 181 g kg^?1) than Kabuli chickpeas. Digestibility coefficients for dry matter (83.1 versus 72.5%), gross energy (83.5 versus 74.8%) and crude protein (83.7 versus 79.4%) were higher for Kabuli chickpeas than for Desi chickpeas. Based on chemical analysis and nutrient digestibility, Kabuli chickpeas would appear to have greater potential as a protein and energy source for use in swine rations than Desi chickpeas. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Physicochemical Characteristics of 18 Cultivars of Nigerian Cowpeas (V. uniguiculafa) and Their Cooking Properties

Eighteen cultivars of cowpeas (V. unguiculata) were analyzed for cooking time, swelling capacity, leached solid, percent seed coat, seed density, amylose, tannins, proteins, and soluble sugars. The physicochemical characteristics varied with the seed coat color, the hilum color, and the skin texture. The cooking time was positively correlated to protein, seed density, percent seed coat, swelling capacity and leached solids, and negatively correlated to the levels of amylose, soluble sugars and tannins. There were significant correlations (p < 0.05) between sugars and swelling capacity, protein and seed density; and seed density and swelling capacity. The mean percent seed coat was significantly different (p < 0.05) between the varieties with wrinkled seed coats and those with smooth seed coats.     

Chemical analysis and physico-chemical properties of chickpea and lentil cultivars

Some high yielding cultivars of chickpea (Kabuli and desi) (Cicer arietinum) and lentil (Lens esculenta) were used for chemical analysis and physico-chemical properties namely protein, fat, sugars, starch, in vitro digestibility of starch and protein; seed weight, seed volume, seed density, hydration capacity, swelling capacity, water absorption capacity and cooking time. Among chickpea, Gora Hisari (Kabuli) and Haryana Chana (desi) cultivars, and among lentil LH 82-6 cultivar manifested higher contents of protein, fat, sugars, starch and in vitro digestibility of starch and protein. Values of seed volume, seed density, hydration capacity, swelling capacity and water absorption capacity were also found higher for these cultivars which might have contributed towards less cooking time.     

Electrical Conductivity,Water Absorption,Leaching, and Color Change of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) during Soaking with Ultrasound Treatment

The properties of soaking water of some cereals under high temperature were determined, but limited information is available on chickpeas in the literature. Change in electrical conductivity, turbidity, color, and soluble solids content of soaking water of chickpeas were studied at 87, 92, and 97°C without ultrasound, and with 25 kHz frequency and different ultrasound powers (100–300 W) for 260 min. Water absorption and color values of chickpea seeds were also studied during soaking. All the properties of soaking water and chickpea seeds were significantly (P < 0.05) affected by temperature, ultrasound treatment, and power of ultrasounds indicating leaching of some nutritional and anti-nutritional compounds. The moisture absorption rate of chickpeas increased with the increase of temperature and power of ultrasound, while color of chickpeas changed inversely with soaking water. Results showed that leaching and reabsorption of some nutritional compounds occur simultaneously and ultrasounds can be used to enhance cooking operations.     

Physicochemical,cooking and textural characteristics of some Indian black gram (Phaseolus mungo L) varieties

Physicochemical, cooking and textural properties of black gram varieties were studied and related to each other using Pearson correlation. Different varieties showed significant variation in their physicochemical, cooking and textural properties. Varieties having higher seed weight and seed volume had higher values of cooking time, swelling capacity, hydration capacity and hardness. The relationships between textural parameters of cooked grains from different black gram varieties showed a significant positive correlation of hardness with cohesiveness (r = 0.472), gumminess (r = 0.938) and chewiness (r = 0.859). Swelling index, cohesiveness and gumminess of black gram varieties were observed to be related to their fibre content. Swelling capacity and swelling index correlated well with cooking time, hardness and gumminess. Cooking time had a positive correlation with hardness (p < 0.05) and gumminess (p < 0.05) and a negative correlation with springiness. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Oligosaccharides in raw and processed legumes

 Oligosaccharides from several types of raw and processed legume seeds consumed in Spain, e.g. lentils (Lens culinaris L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), white common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), “Judiones de la Granja” great white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. The total sugar content ranged from 6.69% to 9.99%, and oligosaccharides represented 25–46% of the total sugar, in the various dry legumes. The main oligosaccharide in raw faba beans was verbascose (3.32%), and stachyose in the remaining legumes (2.21–3.23%). Different amounts of sucrose and traces of glucose, fructose and small amounts of inulin were present in raw samples of all the legumes. After soaking in tap water the loss of oligosaccharides was lowest in red beans (1.25%) and highest in common white beans (27.6%). Pressure cooking, without previous soaking, resulted in no oligosaccharide loss in common white beans but a loss of up to 32% in chickpeas. After pressure cooking of soaked legumes, the loss of stachyose ranged from 14.2% in red beans up to 35.9% for lentils. Substantial amounts of flatus-producing factors can be eliminated by common processing methods. Received: 12 May 1997 / Revised version: 17 July 1997     

Oligosaccharides in raw and processed legumes

 Oligosaccharides from several types of raw and processed legume seeds consumed in Spain, e.g. lentils (Lens culinaris L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), white common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), “Judiones de la Granja” great white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. The total sugar content ranged from 6.69% to 9.99%, and oligosaccharides represented 25–46% of the total sugar, in the various dry legumes. The main oligosaccharide in raw faba beans was verbascose (3.32%), and stachyose in the remaining legumes (2.21–3.23%). Different amounts of sucrose and traces of glucose, fructose and small amounts of inulin were present in raw samples of all the legumes. After soaking in tap water the loss of oligosaccharides was lowest in red beans (1.25%) and highest in common white beans (27.6%). Pressure cooking, without previous soaking, resulted in no oligosaccharide loss in common white beans but a loss of up to 32% in chickpeas. After pressure cooking of soaked legumes, the loss of stachyose ranged from 14.2% in red beans up to 35.9% for lentils. Substantial amounts of flatus-producing factors can be eliminated by common processing methods. Received: 12 May 1997 / Revised version: 17 July 1997     

A Method to Estimate the Hydration and Swelling Properties of Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

ABSTRACT:  Existing methodologies for estimating hydration properties in pulses (a potential indicator of cooking time) can be misleading and few measure both maximum hydration and the rate of hydration. Therefore, a new method, based on the Mitscherlich equation, was proposed and compared to existing methodologies. It was shown to be a superior estimator of both maximum hydration and hydration rate in desi and kabuli chickpeas. The new method was also superior for estimating maximum swelling and the rate of swelling in desi and kabuli chickpeas. Hydration and swelling data for 6 desi and 4 kabuli chickpea genotypes were compared using the new method and showed large genotypic differences. Use of the new method is recommended for estimating the hydration parameters of desi and kabuli chickpea for industry purposes and for selection of genotypes in breeding programs.     

Effect of replacing soybean meal by extruded chickpeas in the diets of growing-finishing pigs on meat quality

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the replacement of soybean meal by extruded chickpeas in diets of growing-finishing pigs on meat quality. In a 17wk study 48 growing-finishing crossbred pigs were fed ad libitum. The experimental design included four treatments, each one of 12 pigs; the ECKP0 treatment was fed with diet containing soybean meal and no chickpeas (control), while treatments ECKP100, ECKP200 and ECKP300 were fed with diets containing 100, 200 and 300kg/t of extruded chickpeas, respectively. The lean meat quality of the longissimus lumborum et thoracis muscle was evaluated by chemical analysis (moisture, protein, fat and ash), fatty acid profile, pH measurement, cooking loss, color evaluation, and sensory evaluation. Odor and taste, tenderness, juiciness, and overall acceptability were scored on 1-10 scales by a group of 10 experienced assessors after a standard cooking regime. Small differences were observed between control and experimental groups in chemical composition (P>0.05). Fatty acid profiles, pH measurements and color evaluation did not differ among treatments (P>0.05), while cooking loss was significantly lower in the control group (P<0.05). The taste panel gave slightly higher scores for the tenderness and juiciness for the control group compared with the chickpea treatments (P<0.05). No differences were observed between control and experimental groups in taste scores (P>0.05). It is concluded that the replacement of soybean meal by extruded chickpeas, when substituted isonitrogenously and isoenergetically at inclusion levels up to 300kg/t of pig, does not influence significantly meat quality.     

Influence of germination techniques on sprout yield,biosynthesis of ascorbic acid and cooking ability,in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Effects of germination time and illuminations on sprout yield, biosynthesis of ascorbic acid, cooking ability and moisture accumulation in chickpeas were significant (p ? 0.01). Green light had the highest promoting effect on the ascorbic acid level (40.59 mg/100 g) as compared to other illuminations but significantly reduced the sprout yield (188.6 g) as compared to dark, fluorescence and γ-rays illuminations with significantly high sprout yield (196 g) and imbibing moisture (51%). Cooking time was reduced by 43% due to γ-rays in un-soaked seed. Cooking time increased in all treated chickpea samples after 24 h germination and thereafter decreased significantly. Red light significantly increased the cooking time (68.44 min) followed by fluorescent (64.5 min), yellow (61.8 min) and green light (60.9 min). The results indicated that germination of chickpea under green light was an effective process in enhancing ascorbic acid content while dark, fluorescence and γ-rays were effective in promoting sprout growth and to some extent biosynthesis of ascorbic acid.     

Effect of domestic processes and water hardness on soluble sugars content of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

An HPLC method for sugar analysis on legumes has been applied to three different Spanish cultivars of chickpeas, to evaluate changes on the soluble sugar fraction (with special attention to α-galactosides) during domestic processing (soaking and cooking) using two types of water with different hardness. Processing liquids were also analysed. Ciceritol, was the main sugar in all the samples. Raffinose and stachyose concentrations were from 1.312 to 1.947 g/100 g in raw samples. Soaking liquids extracted less than 4.86% of the α-galactosides of raw seeds with no considerable amounts of flatogenic sugars. Decreases of raffinose + stachyose after processing were between 24.7 and 42.6%. Cooking liquid contents of α-galactosides ranged from 0.282 to 0.565 g/100 ml, (0.119–0.302 g/100 ml of flatogenic sugars). Statistical tests (ANOVA) showed that water hardness has no significant effect (p⩽0.05) on flatogenic sugar contents of final processed chickpeas.     

Particle Size of Unsweetened Azuki Paste as Related to Cultivar and Cooking Time

Characteristics of beans and effects of cooking time on yield, composition and particle size of unsweetened paste were evaluated in two types of azuki. Cultivar Erimo was smaller in seed size, lower in starch but higher in protein content. Consequently, this cultivar absorbed water faster and to a greater extent during soaking and cooking, and required shorter cooking time than large seeded WSU 262. Over 40% of unsweetened paste particles were smaller than 106 μm for cv Erimo and less than 25% for WSU 262. As cooking time increased, paste yield ranged from 68.6% to 71.9% for cv Erimo and from 57.3% to 74.2% for WSU 262. Sedimentation volume of unsweetened azuki paste correlated with particles smaller than 106 μm (r = 0.918) and can be a useful test to estimate mean particle size of unsweetened azuki paste.     

Determination of cooking times of pulses using an automated Mattson cooker apparatus

A Mattson bean cooker apparatus was modified to electronically register individual cooked seeds by automatically recording the time taken for each plunger to drop. Contact switches, interfaced with a computer via a digital input/output board, were activated when individual plungers dropped through the cooked seeds. It was found that at the time when 80% of the seeds had been penetrated the Mattson cooker method agreed with a tactile method for determining cooking times for yellow peas (Pisum sativum), lentils (Lens culinaris), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) and navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Compared with the tactile method, the automated Mattson cooker method was more objective, much easier to carry out and more resource‐efficient. The automated Mattson cooker could provide plant breeders and the pulse industry with a reference testing method for evaluating the cookability of pulses. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of legume processing on calcium,iron and zinc contents and dialysabilities

Legumes are a good source of calcium, iron and zinc, but are also a source of phytates and dietary fibre components that can negatively affect the bioavailability of these minerals. To estimate the latter, an in vitro dialysis method can be applied that gives the dialysability of a mineral as an estimate of its availability for absorption. Calcium, iron and zinc contents and dialysabilities in three legumes (beans, chickpeas and lentils) and the effects of cooking treatments and industrial processing on these parameters were studied. Beans had the highest calcium content (1.54 g kg^?1 dry matter (DM)) and chickpeas the lowest iron content (46.9 mg kg^?1 DM), whilst the zinc contents were similar in all three raw legumes (33.7–36.9 mg kg^?1 DM). Traditional and microwave cooking reduced the mineral contents by 9.7–36.4% for calcium, 14.2–31% for iron and 11.1–28.9% for zinc. The dialysabilities of calcium with respect to the values for the raw products were also reduced by these cooking techniques. Industrially processed legumes had higher dialysabilities of calcium, iron and zinc than traditionally or microwave cooked legumes. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Relationship between physicochemical and cooking properties,and effects of cooking on antinutrients,of yellow field peas (Pisum sativum)

The relationship between the physicochemical and cooking properties of yellow peas was examined in this study. A positive correlation was found between seed weight and water hydration capacity. The Peleg model, which was modified, could be used to describe the water absorption characteristics of peas and could be used to predict the rate of water absorption in the initial water absorption period. Cooking time could be measured objectively using the Mattson cooker. Cooking time was found to decrease with an increase in water hydration capacity. Hardness of cooked peas, measured using a texture analyser, was negatively correlated with both seed weight and water hydration capacity. Seed coats had a significant effect on water hydration and cooking quality of peas. Peas with relatively thin seed coats exhibited higher water hydration capacity, shorter cooking times and softer texture after cooking. The effects of soaking and cooking on trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) and oligosaccharide levels in peas were also studied. Cooking was more effective than soaking in reducing TIA levels and oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) in peas. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

The Effects of Fungal Infection on the Chemical and Functional Properties of Chickpeas(Cicer arietinum)and Faba Beans (Vicia faba)

We investigated the effects of fungal infection on the chemical composition and functional properties of ‘healthy’ and ‘diseased’ chickpeas and faba beans which were classified on the basis of visual contamination. Following fungal testing, the ‘diseased’ seeds were shown to possess relatively low levels of potentially toxigenic fungi as a proportion of the total number of colonies, which was also lower than expected. Mycotoxins could not be detected in either crop. There were no appreciable differences in the average moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein and acid detergent fibre contents between the ‘healthy’ and ‘diseased’ grain of both chickpeas and faba beans. Hydration capacity of the whole seeds did not differ between ‘healthy’ and ‘diseased’ grain samples of both chickpeas and faba beans. However, hard seed coatedness was greater in both ‘diseased’ chickpeas and faba beans compared with the ‘healthy’ samples. Water and oil absorption capacities were affected by disease in the chickpea and faba bean flours, although the effects were inconsistent between the two seed types. The foaming characteristics of the ‘diseased’ chickpea and faba bean flours were severely affected.