An approach to ergonomics evaluation of hand tools

Based on current knowledge of cumulative trauma disorders in the hand and forearm, related to the use of hand tools, an analysis was undertaken of variables to be considered in ergonomics evaluation of hand tools. Measurement methods were developed and an evaluation station was implemented. Measurement methods are physical, physiological or psychophysical. They focus on the tool, and on the effect of typical use of the tool on the operator. The evaluation station serves as a resource in the development, selection, and testing of tools for a given purpose.     

The introduction of ergonomics: A problem of industrial practice

The problem of introducing ergonomics into a major chemical industry was tackled by a novel approach which allowed the industry concerned access to a wide range of ergonomics skills. This allowed appropriate expertise to be applied as necessary to the variety of problems arising in the design of a plant. The problems included equipment design and layout, thermal, auditory and visual environments, job design and training aids. The difficulties of identifying the benefits of such an introduction were dealt with by the use of a senior management seminar which employed a 'paired presentation' format to describe both the various contributions made by the ergonomists to the industry and the evaluation by the individual recipients of such contributions.     

Exercise and sports equipment: some ergonomics aspects

Sports equipment encompasses a gamut of devices used in laboratory, training and competitive contexts and these form the content of this paper. Ergometers range in sophistication from friction braked stationary bicycles to computer controlled simulators which incorporate exercise modes specific to the athletic user. These are now used in training, as experimental devices and in some instances for competition purposes. Training equipment exhibits a similar emphasis on exercise specificity, safety being an important aspect of its use. Design of projectiles for sporting activities has mainly reflected their traditional modes of use, the introduction of synthetic materials having some ergonomics implications. Similarly, materials science and design technology have contributed innovations in equipment for racquet sports and hitting implements. The changes have tended to be associated with availability of new materials for product construction and have implications for safety and skill in the transition to using the new products. Ski equipment design illustrates ergonomics factors in interfacing the performer with the sporting environment and how equipment has progressed by regenerative design processes. Enhancement of performance in some sports must be accompanied by an awareness of safety requirements: where appropriate, risks to participants should be reduced by use of protective clothing and equipment. Enforced validation of protective equipment is recommended to raise safety levels in certain sports and the safety of spectators must not be neglected. Human factors criteria can then be applied in monitoring, officiating and spectating at sporting events.     

Empirical evaluation of training and a work analysis tool for participatory ergonomics

A controlled laboratory experiment was performed to test the effects of ergonomics training and the NIOSH lifting equation on the participatory redesign of a simulated manual material handling job. Before performing the job, 16 subjects were given ergonomics training and 16 were instructed on how to use the NIOSH lifting equation for manual lifting tasks. Compared to a control group, subjects who received the ergonomics instruction identified and eliminated more risk factors in the simulated job. While subjects who used the NIOSH lifting equation also identified more risk factors, they did not eliminate any more risk factors than the control group. No additive benefit was found using both the training and the lifting equation over either method alone. Ergonomics training led to better improvements than use of the lifting equation in terms of risk factors identified and eliminated. Implications for use of training and tools in participatory ergonomics approaches are discussed.

Relevance to industry

This study supports that ergonomics training should be a requisite for any participatory ergonomics approach. Given a fundamental level of ergonomics training, subjects demonstrated that they were better capable of identifying and eliminating risk factors in the job.     

Progress in systems ergonomics: a selective review

Abstract

The 1967 conference on the Human Operator in Complex Systems identified several developments required in systems ergonomics. Progress in four areas requiring development is reviewed, based on information from workshops and surveys of applications of systems ergonomics in military systems. It is concluded that there has been less progress than might have been hoped in the use of systems relevant criteria in systems ergonomics. Few applications have involved trade-offs between selection, training and equipment design. Task analysis techniques have not advanced, although their use may be changing. Although there appears to be general agreement on the major activities associated with systems ergonomics, the emphasis placed on those different activities may be changing as a result of technological developments. However, these technological developments are now providing opportunities for systems ergonomists to improve their tools and techniques.     

Hands-on experiences of undergraduate students in Automatics and Robotics using a virtual and remote laboratory

Automatics and Robotics subjects are always greatly improved when classroom teaching is supported by adequate laboratory courses and experiments following the "learning by doing" paradigm, which provides students a deep understanding of theoretical lessons. However, expensive equipment and limited time prevent teachers having sufficient educational platforms, and several low cost and flexible solutions have been developed to permit an effective teaching in Automatics and Robotics at a reasonable cost. Virtual and remote laboratories are inside this group of solutions as Web-based experimentation tools which have demonstrated the importance and effectiveness of hand-on experiences. This paper presents an experience teaching based on a blended-learning method using as experimentation tool a virtual and remote robotic laboratory called RobUALab, which is also described in the paper, in Automatics and Robotics subjects of the Computer Science degree at the University of Alicante. Students experiment with a set of hand-on exercises about Automatics and Robotics using RobUALab, firstly in face-to-face classes where they experiment in-situ with the real plant and, afterwards, they access to the experimentation environment in order to finish remotely their practical exercises outside the laboratory. The results obtained in the evaluation of the educational methodology proposed attest its efficiency in terms of learning degree and performance of the students.     

Virtual environments and ergonomics: needs and opportunities

Although based on a still immature technology, virtual environments appear to have potential for applications in industry, commerce, medicine and education. The role of ergonomics will be in development of improved virtual environment interfaces and in enabling better utilization of the technology through specifying user needs and requirements and developing evaluation methodologies. By extension, ergonomists will also be involved in building virtual environments for use in areas of ergonomics activity such as workplace layout, interface design, procedures testing, education and training. This paper overviews virtual environment attributes and capabilities and proposes a framework for their specification, development and evaluation, before summarizing current ergonomics research issues. Current work on participant side effects is summarized. A strong case is made for the potential value of ergonomics for virtual environments and vice versa.     

A multi-level systems approach for the development of tools, equipment and work processes for the construction industry

Ergonomics is a key issue in the construction industry. Many work tasks and associated equipment and tools are not designed with ergonomics principles in mind. Often, in the development of power tools for construction, any attention to ergonomics is restricted to the human-machine interface and handle design. The need for ergonomics intervention in the development process originates from considerations of safety, health, physical work load, and productivity. It is argued that in each of these respects, the construction industry has lower standards than other industries and therefore has a need and opportunity for improvement. A multi-level ergonomics approach is proposed addressing these issues. The approach defines five levels of ergonomics intervention, from designing individual tools for safety, to designing wider aspects of construction and work flow for optimal productivity. This holistic approach is illustrated using case study examples of the development of power tools and work methods.     

Design of safer agricultural equipment: Application of ergonomics and epidemiology

A vast majority of the world's workers are employed in agricultural activities and are exposed to a wide variety of hazards. Since agriculture is primarily decentralised activity, it is often difficult to set and implement work safety norms and standards. While standards can be set for equipment manufactured in large factories, it is not easy to monitor its condition in use. For equipment fabricated in small workshops or by the farmers themselves, it becomes very difficult to ensure that design standards are adhered to especially when the users of equipment are hired labourers on daily wages.

This paper presents the results of an epidemiological study to determine the main causes of injuries among farmers in nine villages in the state of Haryana in Northern India. The study revealed that the largest number of traumatic injuries are caused by fodder cutting machines and threshers. The designs of these machines have been made safer using ergonomics principles. A large number of minor injuries are caused by hand tools.     

A corporate workplace model for ergonomic assessments and improvements

Several companies have developed their own company-specific models for ergonomic improvements. This study aims to describe and identify factors supporting and hindering the implementation and application of one such corporate model for ergonomic assessment and improvement. The model has been developed by Volvo Car Corporation and implemented at an assembly plant in G?teborg, Sweden. The model is unique as it is intended to be used by production engineers and safety representatives in cooperation. The process for assessment of musculoskeletal risks is standardised and participatory, which also supports identification of solutions. Interviews, questionnaires, observation and document studies were used to evaluate the use of the model. The model was found to improve participation and collaboration among stakeholders; provide a more effective ergonomic improvement process; visually represent the ergonomics situation in the company; and give legitimacy to and awareness of ergonomics. However, the model was found to be rather resource demanding and dependent on support from management and unions. In particular, a substantial training programme and regular use of the model are needed.     

Studying distributed cognition of simulation-based team training with DiCoT

Health care organizations employ simulation-based team training (SBTT) to improve skill, communication and coordination in a broad range of critical care contexts. Quantitative approaches, such as team performance measurements, are predominantly used to measure SBTTs effectiveness. However, a practical evaluation method that examines how this approach supports cognition and teamwork is missing. We have applied Distributed Cognition for Teamwork (DiCoT), a method for analysing cognition and collaboration aspects of work settings, with the purpose of assessing the methodology’s usefulness for evaluating SBTTs. In a case study, we observed and analysed four Emergo Train System® simulation exercises where medical professionals trained emergency response routines. The study suggests that DiCoT is an applicable and learnable tool for determining key distributed cognition attributes of SBTTs that are of importance for the simulation validity of training environments. Moreover, we discuss and exemplify how DiCoT supports design of SBTTs with a focus on transfer and validity characteristics.

Practitioner Summary: In this study, we have evaluated a method to assess simulation-based team training environments from a cognitive ergonomics perspective. Using a case study, we analysed Distributed Cognition for Teamwork (DiCoT) by applying it to the Emergo Train System®. We conclude that DiCoT is useful for SBTT evaluation and simulator (re)design.     

QFD: a methodological tool for integration of ergonomics at the design stage

As a marked increase in the number of musculoskeletal disorders was noted in many industrialized countries and more specifically in companies that require the use of hand tools, the French National Research and Safety Institute launched in 1999 a research program on the topic of integrating ergonomics into hand tool design. After a brief review of the problems of integrating ergonomics at the design stage, the paper shows how the "Quality Function Deployment" method has been applied to the design of a boning knife and it highlights the difficulties encountered. Then, it demonstrates how this method can be a methodological tool geared to greater ergonomics consideration in product design.     

Flexible workspace design and ergonomics training: impacts on the psychosocial work environment, musculoskeletal health, and work effectiveness among knowledge workers

A macroergonomics intervention consisting of flexible workspace design and ergonomics training was conducted to examine the effects on psychosocial work environment, musculoskeletal health, and work effectiveness in a computer-based office setting. Knowledge workers were assigned to one of four conditions: flexible workspace (n=121), ergonomics training (n=92), flexible workspace+ergonomics training (n=31), and a no-intervention control (n=45). Outcome measures were collected 2 months prior to the intervention and 3 and 6 months post-intervention. Overall, the study results indicated positive, significant effects on the outcome variables for the two intervention groups compared to the control group, including work-related musculoskeletal discomfort, job control, environmental satisfaction, sense of community, ergonomic climate, communication and collaboration, and business process efficiency (time and costs). However, attrition of workers in the ergonomics training condition precluded an evaluation of the effects of this intervention. This study suggests that a macroergonomics intervention is effective among knowledge workers in office settings.     

A review of:“People and Productivity”. Edited by Robert A. Sutermeister. (McGraw-Hill.) [Pp. 520.] 54s.

Abstract

The benefits for the consumer, and for the practising ergonomist of implementing a marketing strategy designed to increase consumer awareness of ergonomics is discussed with reference to the experiences of ICE Ergonomics, a commercial ergonomics research and consultancy organization based in Great Britain. The marketing strategy, which addresses the areas of publicity, education and practical involvement, forms one part of an integrated marketing strategy now being implemented by ICE.     

Effect of wearing personal protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus on heart rate,temperature and oxygen consumption during stepping exercise and live fire training exercises

Fire fighter breathing apparatus instructors (BAIs) must possess the ability to respond to both the extrinsic stress of a high temperature environment and the intrinsic stress from wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), repeatedly and regularly, whilst training recruits in live fire training exercises (LFTEs). There are few previous investigations on BAIs in hot environments such as LFTEs, since the main research focus has been on regular fire fighters undertaking exercises in temperate or fire conditions at a moderate to high exercise intensity. In this study, the intrinsic cardiovascular stress effects of wearing PPE + SCBA were first investigated using a step test whilst wearing gym kit (control), weighted gym kit (a rucksack weighted to the equivalent of PPE + SCBA) and full PPE + SCBA (weight plus the effects of protective clothing). The extrinsic effects of the very hot environment were investigated in BIAs in LFTEs compared to mock fire training exercises (MFTEs), where the fire was not ignited. There was an increase in heart rate due to the modest workload imposed on the BAIs through carrying out the MFTEs (25.0 (18.7)%) compared to resting. However, when exposed to fire during the LFTEs, heat storage appears to be significant as the heart rate increased by up to 39.8 (±20.1)% over that of the mock LFTEs at temperate conditions. Thus, being able to dissipate heat from the PPE is particularly important in reducing the cardiovascular responses for BAIs during LFTEs.     

Corporate initiatives in ergonomics--an introduction

Examples in the literature of corporate initiatives in ergonomics are reviewed. Different types of programmes are identified with ambitions ranging from time-limited interventions to continuous processes. Common elements are health surveillance, workstation design and choice of tools, product design, quality aspects, participative aspects and education, training and information. The implementation of ergonomics programmes varies substantially depending on the type of company, and company policies and organisation. Some of the most developed ergonomics programmes originate from the automobile industry. Other businesses with many established programmes are the electronics industry, the food industry and the office environment. A participative approach, as well as ergonomics expertise, are crucial ingredients for a successful programme. The scientific evaluation of ergonomics programmes, especially in economical terms, is in too many cases insufficient or missing. Furthermore, links to company core values such as quality improvement are often lacking. Programmes in ergonomics are still often seen as solely a matter of health and safety. Only a few companies have reached the state where ergonomics constitutes an integrated part of the overall strategy of the enterprise.     

Effectiveness of a participatory ergonomics intervention in improving communication and psychosocial exposures

A participatory ergonomics programme was implemented in an automotive parts manufacturing factory in which an ergonomics change team was formed, composed of members from management, the organized labour union and the research team. It was hypothesized that the participatory nature of this change process would result in enhanced worker perceptions of workplace communication dynamics, decision latitude and influence, which in conjunction with anticipated mechanical exposure reductions would lead to reduced worker pain severity. Utilizing a sister plant in the corporation as a referent group, a quasi-experimental design was employed with a longitudinal, repeat questionnaire approach to document pre-post intervention changes. Nine participatory activities (psychosocial interventions) were implemented as part of the process. Communication dynamics regarding ergonomics were significantly enhanced at the intervention plant compared to the referent plant. However, there were no significantly different changes in worker perceptions of decision latitude or influence between the two plants, nor did pain severity change. Possible explanations for these results include limited intervention intensity, context and co-intervention differences between the two plants, high plant turnover reducing the statistical power of the study and lack of sensitivity and specificity in the psychosocial measures used. Further research should include the development of psychosocial tools more specific to participatory ergonomic interventions and the assessment of the extent of change in psychosocial factors that might be associated with improvements in pain.     

Effectiveness of a participatory ergonomics intervention in improving communication and psychosocial exposures

A participatory ergonomics programme was implemented in an automotive parts manufacturing factory in which an ergonomics change team was formed, composed of members from management, the organized labour union and the research team. It was hypothesized that the participatory nature of this change process would result in enhanced worker perceptions of workplace communication dynamics, decision latitude and influence, which in conjunction with anticipated mechanical exposure reductions would lead to reduced worker pain severity. Utilizing a sister plant in the corporation as a referent group, a quasi-experimental design was employed with a longitudinal, repeat questionnaire approach to document pre-post intervention changes. Nine participatory activities (psychosocial interventions) were implemented as part of the process. Communication dynamics regarding ergonomics were significantly enhanced at the intervention plant compared to the referent plant. However, there were no significantly different changes in worker perceptions of decision latitude or influence between the two plants, nor did pain severity change. Possible explanations for these results include limited intervention intensity, context and co-intervention differences between the two plants, high plant turnover reducing the statistical power of the study and lack of sensitivity and specificity in the psychosocial measures used. Further research should include the development of psychosocial tools more specific to participatory ergonomic interventions and the assessment of the extent of change in psychosocial factors that might be associated with improvements in pain.     

The design of cal packages for teaching numerical methods to chemistry students

The paper discusses the design of computational exercises useful for a course in numerical methods for chemists. Some of the exercises make use of available programs whilst others require the student to write programs incorporating numerical library routines. The emphasis throughout is on the use of numerical methods to solve chemical problems. The aim is to develop an awareness and practical experience rather than to provide deep mathematical insight.     

Microprocessor training equipment

Effective microprocessor training courses are necessary if maximum benefits are to be achieved from the new technology. These courses sholud contain a large fraction of practical hands-on exercises using equipment that resembles as closely as possible that used in design and development laboratories. This article summarizes the tasks that must be carried out in microprocessor training equipment available. The aim is to enable the correct decisions about equipment to be made when setting up a training laboratory.