The ups and downs of memory.

Ever since the classic work of Ebbinghaus (1885/1964), the default view in scientific psychology has been that memory declines over time. Less well-known clinical and laboratory traditions suggest, however, that memory can also increase over time. Ballard (1913) demonstrated that, actually, memory simultaneously increases and decreases over time and thus has not 1 but 2 tendencies. When more than 1 recall test is administered, a later test invariably shows loss of some items remembered earlier (oblivescence), but later tests also invariably show that previously unremembered items are recovered in later tests (reminiscence). Depending on a number of factors (e.g., the stimulus used), the overall balance between reminiscence and oblivescence may be positive (hypermnesia) or negative (amnesia). Modern multitrial recall studies have extensively documented hypermnesic memory in single laboratory sessions and, also, although less frequently, over periods of days, weeks, and even months. With hypermnesic memory now established, hypnosis has been shown not to add anything to regular hypermnesia. This article presents an integration of the scattered literatures, which now, after a century of experimental and clinical effort, coheres into a solid empirical picture, with numerous implications (e.g., for the recovered memory controversy, eyewitness testimony, repression, and subliminal perception). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The catalepsy test: Its ups and downs.

The typical catalepsy (CPSY) test consists of placing an animal in an unusual posture and recording the time taken to correct this posture. This time is regarded as an index of the intensity of CPSY. CPSY is a robust behavior, and the lack of standardization does not usually hinder its actual detection. However, the intensity of the cataleptic effect is influenced by minor methodological differences, and interpretation and comparison of results across laboratories are difficult. The behavioral CPSY test can use any of several different apparatus, including wire grids, parallel bars, platforms, or pegs, to situate the animals in unusual positions. The most common is the bar test (BT), and despite its wide use in psychopharmacological research, even parameters of this test are not standardized. The present article reviews parameters chosen by investigators that measure CPSY. The methodological issues of repeated testing, scaling of scores, apparatus, animal weight, maximal test duration, behavioral criteria, and other influences are discussed. A brief review of the neuropharmacological basis of CPSY is included. It is argued that a universal, standardized BT be adopted by researchers. New data on a novel automated BT in the Digiscan Activity Monitoring System is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The ups and downs of Hebb synapses.

Modelers have come up with many different learning rules for neural networks. When a teacher specifies the correct output, error-driven rules work better than pure Hebb rules in which the changes in synapse strength depend on the correlation between pre and postsynaptic activities. But for unsupervised learning, Hebb rules can be very effective if they are combined with suitable normalization or "unlearning" terms to prevent the synapses growing without bound. Hebb rules that use rates of change of activity instead of activity itself are useful for discovering perceptual invariants and may also provide a way of implementing error-driven learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modification of affective consequences of alcohol: A comparison of social and solitary drinking.

Tested 2 predictions based on S. Schachter's 1964 theory of emotion regarding the interaction of alcohol consumed in social and solitary situations. Ss were 60 male and 60 female 18-30 yr old adults. It was predicted that the cognitive circumstances of social drinking would promote an affective response to alcohol, whereas the same objective level of intoxication would be responded to as physical symptoms among solitary drinkers. Additionally, it was predicted that the social manipulation would be effective only to the extent that "plasticity" was induced (i.e., only when alcohol and not placebo was consumed). Both predictions were generally confirmed, using self-report of mood and O ratings of amusement as dependent variables. It is conjectured that the social circumstances of drinking may be important in determining the reinforcing value of the intoxicated state. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some affective consequences of social comparison and reflection processes: The pain and pleasure of being close.

A self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model of social behavior was described. According to the comparison process, when another outperforms the self on a task high in relevance to the self, the closer the other the greater the threat to self-evaluation. According to the reflection process, when another outperforms the self on a task low in relevance to the self, the closer the other the greater the promise of augmentation to self-evaluation. Affect was assumed to reflect threats and promises to self-evaluation. In 3 studies, Ss were given feedback about own performance and the performance of a close (friend) and distant (stranger) other on tasks that were either low in self-relevance (Study 2) or that varied in self-relevance (Studies 1 and 3). In Study 1 (N?=?31), being outperformed by a close other resulted in greater arousal than being outperformed by a distant other. In Study 2 (N?=?30), results indicate that when relevance was low, more positive affect was associated with a friend's outperforming the self than either a friend's performing at a level equal to the self or being outperformed by a stranger. In Study 3 (N?=?31), pleasantness of expression was an interactive function of relevance of task, relative performance, and closeness of comparison other. All 3 studies are interpreted as being generally consistent with the SEM model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship-contingent self-esteem and the ups and downs of romantic relationships.

Relationship-contingent self-esteem (RCSE) emerges from perspectives on authenticity, need fulfillment, and relationship functioning and is an unhealthy form of self-esteem that depends on one's relationship. Four studies provided evidence of convergent, discriminant, incremental, and predictive validity for RCSE. Study 1 tested associations between RCSE and several conceptually related and unrelated constructs in multiple samples. In Study 2, the authors employed an event-contingent diary procedure to examine reports of self-esteem as a function of everyday relationship events. The association between event valence and changes in self-esteem became stronger with RCSE, and this interaction remained controlling for several parallel interactions by other constructs. Study 3 employed an interval-contingent diary procedure and found support for a mediation model in which the moderating role of RCSE largely occurred through momentary emotions, which in turn predicted momentary self-esteem. Study 4 sampled couples and found that partners who were both higher in RCSE felt more committed but not more satisfied or close. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The ups and downs of dating: Fluctuations in satisfaction in newly formed romantic relationships.

This research examined the association between relationship satisfaction and later breakup status, focusing on the temporal changes in satisfaction ratings of individuals in newly formed dating relationships. Growth curve analytic techniques were used in 2 longitudinal studies to create 4 predictors: each participant's initial level of satisfaction, linear trend in satisfaction over time, degree of fluctuation in satisfaction over time, and mean level of satisfaction. Consistent with hypotheses, individuals who exhibited greater fluctuation in their repeated satisfaction ratings were more likely to be in relationships that eventually ended, even after controlling for overall level of satisfaction. Individuals with fluctuating levels of satisfaction also reported relatively lower commitment. The results are discussed in terms of conditions that promote versus undermine relationship stability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Collective narcissism and its social consequences.

This article introduces the concept of collective narcissism—an emotional investment in an unrealistic belief about the in group’s greatness—aiming to explain how feelings about an ingroup shape a tendency to aggress against outgroups. The results of 5 studies indicate that collective, but not individual, narcissism predicts intergroup aggressiveness. Collective narcissism is related to high private and low public collective self-esteem and low implicit group esteem. It predicts perceived threat from outgroups, unwillingness to forgive outgroups, preference for military aggression over and above social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, and blind patriotism. The relationship between collective narcissism and aggressiveness is mediated by perceived threat from outgroups and perceived insult to the ingroup. In sum, the results indicate that collective narcissism is a form of high but ambivalent group esteem related to sensitivity to threats to the ingroup’s image and retaliatory aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Misunderstanding the affective consequences of everyday social interactions: The hidden benefits of putting one's best face forward.

Positive self-presentation may have beneficial consequences for mood that are typically overlooked. Across a series of studies, participants underestimated how good they would feel in situations that required them to put their best face forward. In Studies 1 and 2A, participants underestimated the emotional benefits of interacting with an opposite sex stranger versus the benefits of interacting with a romantic partner. In Study 2B, participants who were instructed to engage in self-presentation felt happier after interacting with their romantic partner than participants who were not given this instruction, although other participants serving as forecasters did not anticipate such benefits. Increasing the generalizability of this self-presentation effect across contexts, the authors demonstrated that participants also underestimated how good they would feel before and after being evaluated by another person (Studies 3 and 4). This failure to recognize the affective benefits of putting one's best face forward may underlie forecasting errors regarding the emotional consequences of the most common forms of social interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Looking at the bright side: The affective monitoring of direction.

The monitoring of internal functioning and information processing can evoke affect, even when only affectively neutral stimuli are processed. Smooth functioning induces positive affect, whereas difficulties and interruptions lead to negative affect. In 2 studies, the authors investigated explicit and implicit affect induced by simple arrows pointing to either the left or the right. The authors expected that attentional shifts due to the arrows would be performed more easily in the reading direction, and lead to more positive affect, than shifts in the opposite direction. In Experiment 1, Dutch left-to-right readers subjectively rated arrows to the right much more positively than arrows to the left. In Experiment 2, an arrow pointing right speeded arm flexion (i.e., approach), whereas an arrow pointing left facilitated arm extension (i.e., avoidance), indicating strong implicit affective influences of the arrows. If affective monitoring indeed represents a basic mechanism for implicit affect elicitation, affect no longer needs to be analyzed exclusively in terms of conscious experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Defensive pessimism, optimism, and stimulating alternatives: Some ups and downs of prefactual and counterfactual thinking.

Four studies investigated the prefactual (alternative preoutcome predictions) and counterfactual (alternative postoutcome "what might have beens") mental simulations of defensive pessimists and optimists. In Study 1, defensive pessimists engaged in upward (better than expected) prefactual thinking, whereas optimists engaged in downward (worse than actuality) counterfactual thinking in reaction to a course exam. In Study 2, defensive pessimists preferred upward prefactual thinking and optimists preferred no prefactual thinking when prefactual thoughts were directly manipulated. In Studies 3 and 4, defensive pessimists and optimists differed in reactions to manipulated success and failure, and these reactions were further moderated by the opportunity to engage in prefactual thinking and the possibility of a second try. Individual differences in strategies of prefactual and counterfactual thinking are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stressors, locus of control, and social support as consequences of affective psychological well-being.

Tests of the influence of affective psychological well-being on stressors, locus of control, and social support in a 1-month follow-up study of 210 male and 34 female British accountants is reported. There was a marginally significant association between the level of psychological symptoms and subsequent reports of intensity of quantitative workload stressors. A significant interaction between psychological symptoms and a measure of depression-enthusiasm was found to predict subsequent locus of control. The results indicate a differential pattern of associations between aspects of affective well-being and subsequent reports of social support. The results also indicate that initially more frequent stressors are associated with subsequently less intense stressors of the same type. The findings highlight the dynamic and reciprocal nature of the occupational stress process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The social consequences of expressive suppression.

At times, people keep their emotions from showing during social interactions. The authors' analysis suggests that such expressive suppression should disrupt communication and increase stress levels. To test this hypothesis, the authors conducted 2 studies in which unacquainted pairs of women discussed an upsetting topic. In Study 1, one member of each pair was randomly assigned to (a) suppress her emotional behavior, (b) respond naturally, or (c) cognitively reappraise in a way that reduced emotional responding. Suppression alone disrupted communication and magnified blood pressure responses in the suppressors' partners. In Study 2, suppression had a negative impact on the regulators' emotional experience and increased blood pressure in both regulators and their partners. Suppression also reduced rapport and inhibited relationship formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypes and social judgment: The consequences of group variability.

The present investigation examined the effects of group variability on judgments of single group members. Male and female participants formed impressions of a group of 50 men or women on the basis of their performance on a test of perceptual-motor skills. The variability of group performance varied across conditions. Participants then made speeded typicality judgments and ability ratings of several "new" group members whose performance varied in its discrepancy from the group. Compared with participants in the high variability condition, participants in the low variability condition were (a) more likely to judge discrepant group members as atypical and (b) faster to assess their atypicality. This latter effect decreased the probability that participants in the low variability condition used the group as a basis for judging atypical group members. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hedonic consequences of social comparison: a contrast of happy and unhappy people

Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-rated unhappy individuals would be more sensitive to social comparison information than would happy ones. Study 1 showed that whereas unhappy students' affect and self-assessments were heavily affected by a peer who solved anagrams either faster or slower, happy students' responses were affected by the presence of a slower peer only. These between-group differences proved to be largely independent of 2 factors associated with happiness, i.e., self-esteem and optimism. Study 2 showed that whereas the unhappy group's responses to feedback about their own teaching performance were heavily influenced by a peer who performed even better or even worse, happy students' responses again were moderated only by information about inferior peer performance. Implications for our appreciation of the link between cognitive processes and "hedonic" consequences are discussed.     

The social norms of alcohol-related negative consequences.

Social norms for alcohol use are important influences on individual college student drinking. The present study extends social norms research by examining alcohol-related consequences and, in particular, whether similar misperceptions exist regarding the frequency and evaluation of these consequences over time. College student drinkers (N = 624) participating in a longitudinal study completed Web-based surveys assessing alcohol use and related consequences, as well as their beliefs about frequency and evaluation of consequences for the typical college student. Findings suggest that students overestimated how often typical college students experience negative consequences and underestimated how negatively other students evaluated those consequences. Finally, results support a bidirectional model for alcohol-related consequences, possibly indicating a reciprocal, mutually influential feed-forward loop of norms and consequences that promotes maintenance of college student drinking and consequences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anticipated affective consequences of physical activity adoption and maintenance.

Objective: The expected emotional consequences of future actions are thought to play an important role in health behavior change. This research examined whether anticipated affective consequences of success and failure vary across stages of physical activity change and differentially predict physical activity adoption as compared to maintenance. Design: Using a prospective design over a 3-month period, a community sample of 329 healthy, middle-aged adults were assessed at 2 time points. Main Outcome Measures: Anticipated positive and negative emotions, stage of behavior change (precontemplation [PC], contemplation [C], preparation [P], action [A], maintenance [M]), and level of physical activity. Results: At baseline, anticipated positive emotions were greater in C versus PC, whereas anticipated negative emotions were greater in M versus A and in M versus P. Higher anticipated positive but not negative emotions predicted physical activity adoption and maintenance after 3 months. Conclusion: Although the expected affective consequences of future success and failure differentiated among individuals in the early and later stages of physical activity change, respectively; only the anticipated affective consequences of success predicted future behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The direction and mission of social medicine

The author characterizes briefly the contemporary baseline situation of social medicine. He explains its three aspects--the methodical and cognitive approach, the orientation on values and attitudes and the formative and action component. The author emphasizes the integral concept and the necessity of a purposeful development of the mentioned discipline. The purpose of the article is to provide basic orientation in social medicine for discussion and creative work.     

Self-knowledge and social inference: I. The impact of cognitive/affective and behavioral data.

Two studies investigated the sources of information that people would perceive as diagnostic of self. In Study 1, 40 undergraduates completed a questionnaire in which they rated private thoughts and feelings, other peoples' as well as their own, as far more informative and prototypic of self than overt actions. In Study 2, 48 undergraduate speakers participated in a structured interview during which they revealed either a sample of their past thoughts and feelings, a sample of their past behavior, or a mixture of these 2 types of information to 71 undergraduate observers who watched and listened from behind a 1-way mirror. The interviews offering cognitive/affective revelations were perceived, both by the speakers themselves and by observers, to be more informative than interviews offering behavioral revelations. Analyses from both studies, however, suggest that the tendency to weight cognitive/affective information more heavily than behavioral information may be stronger and more consistent for self-perception than social perception. Study 2, in particular, indicates that speakers made more extreme dispositional inferences based on cognitive/affective interviews, whereas observers did not. Ratings of interpersonal liking closely paralleled ratings of perceived informativeness for the questionnaire responses in Study 1 but not for the responses to explicit revelations of thoughts and feeling vs behavior in Study 2. Sex differences were also observed on several measures. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)