Scaling laws governing the erosion and impact resistance of thermal barrier coatings

Airfoils coated with columnar thermal barriers have been removed from aero-engines and characterized. Observations of deformation and cracking have been used to identify three material removal mechanisms. These are: (i) sub-surface, trans-columnar cracking attributed to the initial elasto-dynamic response (nanosecond timeframes), (ii) segmented cone cracks when the ensuing penetration (millisecond timescale) remains elastic, (iii) local densification, accompanied by either kink bands or lateral cracks when the projectile penetrates plastically, especially at high temperature. Basic impact mechanics, combined with fracture criteria, have been used to devise scaling laws for these mechanisms. The results are combined to derive relations that characterize the thresholds for material removal and the transitions between major mechanisms (expressed in terms of a mechanism map). Some aspects of the material removal at kinetic energies above the thresholds are examined.     

Erosion of ceramic thermal barrier coatings

A study was made to relate the erosion behavior of several experimental zirconia-base ceramic thermal barrier coatings to their processing parameters and microstructure. The incremental erosion rates were measured and each specimen was examined using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Erosion experiments were conducted in a room temperature erosion test apparatus using 63–100 μm silica erodent particles with impact velocities of 30 m s⁻¹ (100 ft s⁻¹). Erosion rates in the steady state condition are presented for impingement angles of 30° and 90°. It was determined that significant differences in erosion rates occurred because of variations in the processing parameters, composition and resulting coating morphology. Initial erosion rates were found to be strongly dependent on the surface roughness while steady state erosion appears to be more dependent on the intrinsic coating properties and porosity.     

热障涂层在多次热循环作用下残余应力的模拟

采用热弹塑性有限元方法,对热障涂层多次热循环降温过程中由于热梯度和材料参数不匹配而产生的残余应力进行了数值模拟,分析了平面和曲面的界面形貌对界面残余应力的影响.结果表明,在相同材料参数情况下,陶瓷层与粘接层的界面形状对残余应力及结构稳定状态有显著的影响,凹凸不平的界面将会使界面残余应力发生突变,不利于增强界面结合强度和涂层结构的热稳定性.该结果对分析涂层寿命及失效机制有指导意义.     

Mechanisms of structural thermal adaptability of silicate coatings

The present work describes the results of experimental research of surface layers of fine silicate coatings appearing due to the minerals, such as lubricating coatings as fillers. It is shown that the structure of protective films degrades primarily due to accumulation of impurities in the boundary layer and at the inter-phase boundary with the metallic substrate, particularly carbon promoting the formation of a larger amount of crystalline structure defects. The effect of sliding velocity on the wear resistance of the silicate coating is weighed. The compatibility of friction materials and minerals is advised in order to achieve the maximum efficiency of protective coatings.     

Effect of TGO on the tensile failure behavior of thermal barrier coatings

Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering - Thermally grown oxide (TGO) may be generated in thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) after high-temperature oxidation. TGO increases the internal stress of the...     

反射系数法微波检测热障涂层厚度的实验研究

为了保证热障涂层的隔热效果,对热障涂层的厚度进行了微波无损检测.检测中探头选用R281A带法兰矩形波导探头,工作频率范围为26.5 ～ 40 GHz.仿真计算利用CST微波工作室(computer simulation technology-microwave studio)软件进行.实验结果表明,在26.5～40 GHz工作频率范围内,反射系数的相位差能良好地表征热障涂层的厚度.并且在高频率段时可以达到相位差变化l°,热障涂层的厚度变化约8μm的分辨率.在28.5～29.1 GHz工作频率范围内,反射系数的幅值也能表征热障涂层的厚度.实验结果与仿真结果基本吻合.     

Preparation of cross-sectional specimens of ceramic thermal barrier coatings for transmission electron microscopy

During the microstructural examination of ceramic thermal barrier coatings by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), initial efforts for the preparation of cross-sectional thin foils from interface regions by conventional means were mostly failures. Delamination of the Y₂O₃-stabilized ZrO₂ ceramic coating from the nickel-base alloy substrate sometimes occurred during fine polishing at around 80 μm thickness but mostly occurred during dimpling. Because of this sensitivity, special techniques for mechanical handling were developed so that ion milling could give thin enough regions of the metal-ceramic interface. TEM showed convincingly that the highly fragile nature of the coatings is in fact due to the extensive porosity at the interface developed as a result of heat treatment.     

Sulfate based coatings for use as high temperature lubricants

Films of CaSO₄, BaSO₄, and SrSO₄ were grown with the pulsed laser deposition technique. The high temperature lubricious properties of these films were evaluated and it was found that all three sulfates exhibited a low coefficient of friction (μ ≈ 0.15) at 600°C. X-ray diffraction studies showed the presence of carbonate crystal structures along with the sulfate crystal structures after testing. The carbonate crystal structure is composed of alternating planes of alkali earth atoms and carbonate ions. The layered structure of the carbonates may be important to the lubricating mechanism as the layered structure of the dichalcogenides contributes to their tribological properties. Various observations of the wear region suggest that the starting surface finish of the metal coupon plays a significant role in the tribological mechanism of these materials. Additional composite films containing CaSO₄ were grown with the plasma spray technique. The high temperature friction properties of these films were measured and compared to those of similar films containing CaF₂/BaF₂. Although both types of films exhibited low coefficients of friction at 600°C, analysis of the wear regions did not show the presence of CaSO₄ and CaF₂/BaF₂, respectively. Ca and/or Ba were present, though, suggesting that a new compound is formed in the wear track and that the sulfate and fluoride phases may not be providing the low friction in these composites. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cavitation erosion of plasma-sprayed NiTi coatings

Ni-Ti protective layers are under development to increase the cavitation resistance of materials such as stainless steel. For the present work, layers were obtained by vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) from both elemental powder mixtures and pre-alloyed powder. Characterization was done with respect to phase formation and impurity content. Cavitation erosion resistance was examined using a standard ultrasonic cavitation test. In the coating from the pre-alloyed powder, a higher resistance due to the lower presence of non-shape memory phases was observed. The cavitation erosion resistance of pre-alloyed plasma-sprayed layers is in good agreement with the one of pore-free NiTi samples evaluated in this study and others described in the literature.     

Erosion, corrosion and erosion–corrosion of EB PVD thermal barrier coatings

Electron beam (EB) physical vapour deposited (PVD) thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have been used in gas turbine engines for a number of years. The primary mode of failure is attributed to oxidation of the bond coat and growth of the thermally grown oxide (TGO), the alumina scale that forms on the bond coat and to which the ceramic top coat adheres. Once the TGO reaches a critical thickness, the TBC tends to spall and expose the underlying substrate to the hot gases. Erosion is commonly accepted as a secondary failure mechanism, which thins the TBC thus reducing its insulation capability and increasing the TGO growth rate. In severe conditions, erosion can completely remove the TBC over time, again resulting in the exposure of the substrate, typically Ni-based superalloys. Since engine efficiency is related to turbine entry temperature (TET), there is a constant driving force to increase this temperature. With this drive for higher TETs comes corrosion problems for the yttria stabilised zirconia (YSZ) ceramic topcoat. YSZ is susceptible to attack from molten calcium–magnesium–alumina–silicates (CMAS) which degrades the YSZ both chemically and micro-structurally. CMAS has a melting point of around 1240 °C and since it is common in atmospheric dust it is easily deposited onto gas turbine blades. If the CMAS then melts and penetrates into the ceramic, the life of the TBC can be significantly reduced. This paper discusses the various failure mechanisms associated with the erosion, corrosion and erosion–corrosion of EB PVD TBCs. The concept of a dimensionless ratio D/d, where D is the contact footprint diameter and d is the column diameter, as a means of determining the erosion mechanism is introduced and discussed for EB PVD TBCs.     

Application of multispectral radiation thermometry in temperature measurement of thermal barrier coated surfaces

Ceramics coatings are materials widely used in gas turbines to provide thermal shielding of superalloy materials against excessive turbine temperatures. However, measurement of their surface temperatures using conventional radiation thermometers, more so in the presence of high ambient radiation and low emissivity is quite challenging. A multispectral method employing curve fitting technique to measure the temperature of such targets in the range of 800–1200 K and ambient temperature of 1273 K is implemented in this paper through simulation. Several simulated experiments were carried out to identify emissivity models best suited for multispectral radiation thermometry applicable to ceramic coatings. The best emissivity model applicable to yttria-stabilized zirconia of coating thickness of 330 μm in the wavelength range of 3.5–3.9 μm was found to predict temperature with an error of less than 1.5% in the presence and absence of background noise.     

High temperature erosion properties of arc-sprayed coatings using various cored wires containing Ti–Al intermetallics

Three Ti–Al series intermetallic compounds, TiAl₃, TiAl, and Ti₃Al, were utilized to prepare cored wires, which were then used to form coatings on low carbon steel substrates by a supersonic arc spraying process. High temperature erosion (HTE) properties of the coatings were determined in a laboratory elevated temperature erosion tester. The results show that the HTE resistance of the coatings prepared using the cored wires decreased in the order of (from best to worst) TiAl₃, TiAl and Ti₃Al. The arc-sprayed coatings prepared using cored wire containing TiAl₃ and TiAl powders exhibited better or comparable HTE resistance than that containing a commercial Cr₃C₂-based composite powder, although the hardness of the former two coatings was relatively lower. The laminated structure, which was characteristic of the arc spraying coatings, was found on all the prepared coatings. Oxides resulted from oxidation of both the cored alloy powders and the mild steel sheaths were also identified between the laminated layers. Under the present testing conditions, materials loss of the coatings can be contributed to brittle breaking, fatigue spalling, cutting and ploughing mechanisms.     

Elevated temperature erosion of steels

The elevated temperature erosion behavior of several commercial ferritic and austenitic steels was determined over a range of temperatures from room temperature to 900 °C. It was determined that all the steels had constant or decreasing erosion rates as the test temperature was increased until a temperature was reached where a marked increase in erosion rate began to occur with temperature. Austenitic steels were determined to have lower erosion rates than ferritic steels and their hardness had no correlation with their erosion rate. All the steels tested eroded by the platelet mechanism of erosion.     

Effects of carbon content on the high temperature friction and wear of chromium carbonitride coatings

Chromium nitride-based coatings are often used in application at high temperature. They possess high wear and oxidation resistance; however, the friction coefficient is typically very high. Therefore, we doped CrN coatings by carbon with the aim to improve tribological properties at elevated temperature, particularly to lower the friction. CrCN coatings were prepared by cathode arc evaporation technology using constant N₂ flow and variable C₂H₂ flow. The coatings with a thickness of 3-4 μm were deposited on hardened steel substrates and high-temperature resistant alloy. The carbon content varied from 0 at.% (i.e. CrN) up to 31 at.%. The standard coating characterization included the nano-hardness, adhesion, chemical composition and structure (including hot X-ray diffraction). Wear testing was done using a high temperature tribometer (pin-on-disc); the maximum testing temperature was 700 °C. The coatings with carbon content 12-31 at.% showed almost identical tribological behaviour up to 700 °C.     

Microstructural characterization of plasma sprayed Ln2Zr2O7 thermal barrier coatings by electron microscopy methods

The presented article characterized microstructural aspects of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) analysis using methods of electron microscopy such as electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), transmission/scanning electron microscopy (S/TEM), and TEM. The analyzed TBC system is based on gadolinium zirconate deposited by air plasma spraying method, and additionally, it was subjected to an oxidation test for 500 hr at a temperature of 1,100°C. Moreover, the morphological characterization of feedstock powder was showed. EBSD analysis revealed the inhomogeneity of feedstock materials in the form of complex phase composition. In the case of deposited coating, this method was used to characterize the crystallite size of zirconate coating and phase composition of thermally grown oxide zone. S/TEM and TEM analysis showed morphological details of this zone but not revealed such phase as perovskite oxide of GdAlO₃ type.     

Resistance of nanostructured titanium dioxide coatings to erosion corrosion

Abstract

Investigations were undertaken to determine the erosion corrosion resistance of nanostructured titanium dioxide coatings in 5 vol.-%–3·5 wt-% NaCl slurry at velocities ranging from 1 to 4 m s^–1 in a recirculating loop. Two types of nanopowders, spray dried and densified (AE 9342) and chemically precipitated and spray dried (AE 9303) were used. The results were compared with a conventional TiO₂ coated samples (SM 102). Specimen AE 9342 showed a higher resistance compared to AE 9303. No localised corrosion on the above specimen was observed. The erosion corrosion was caused by etching of intersplat boundaries. The erosion corrosion is dependent on surface topography. A homogeneous distribution of nanoagglomerates of unmelted, partially melted nanoparticles embedded in coatings, a large area of melted zone and porosity less than 1% enhances the erosion corrosion resistance of nanostructured titanium dioxide coatings.     

温度梯度对热障涂层影响的模拟

采用热弹塑性有限元法,对热障涂层在不同温度梯度作用的过程中,由于材料系数不匹配而引起的应力和位移进行了模拟分析.结果表明,等效应力的大小随温度梯度的大小单调递减;界面最大位移随温度梯度单调递增.同时也发现,模型在不同温度梯度下存在一个最小位移;当材料属性和载荷一定时,将存在一个最佳涂层厚度,使得涂层总的位移最小.该结果对分析涂层寿命及失效机制有指导意义.     

高温工况下热工参数测量的系统解决方案的研究

热参数测量的巨大需求是为了准确测量温度监测参数,以提高电力设备的安全性和效率,确保设备的安全运行。然而,在电力生产本身,由于各种原因,热参数测量不正确可能会不时发生,这会导致热保护系统发生故障或停止。该文总结分析了设备运行过程中常见的测温问题,提出了维护和操作解决方案。     

Solid particle erosion of diamond coatings under non-normal impact angles

This paper describes an erosion study, which examines the effect of impact angle on the erosion behaviour of diamond coatings deposited on tungsten substrates by chemical vapour deposition (CVD). The coatings were 37–60 μm in thickness and were erosion tested using angular silica sand with a mean diameter of 194 μm at a particle velocity of 268 m s⁻¹. The impact angles used were 30, 45, 60 and 90°. The results show that the damage features, termed “pin-holes” are generated at all angles, though the number of impacts required for pin-hole initiation is significantly increased at lower angles. This work provides useful information in attempting to explain the mechanism by which damage is generated during the high velocity sand erosion of CVD diamond.     

Corrosion and erosion performance of HVOF/TiAlN PVD coatings and candidate materials for high pressure gate valve application

The main objective of this paper is to study the slurry erosion and corrosion behavior of WC10Co4Cr, Armcore ‘M’ Stellite 6 and 12 HVOF coatings, TiAlN PVD coating, selected steels, such as X20Cr13, 17Cr–4Ni pH steel and Ti6Al4V titanium alloy alongwith conventional hard weld deposits of Stellite 6 and 21. The slurry erosion studies were carried out at 60° angle of impingement for the velocities in the range of 15–20 m/s using mineral sand of −40 to +80 mesh. The corrosion studies were carried out as per ASTM B 117-73 for 100 h. During slurry erosion testing, WC10Co4Cr HVOF along with TiAlN PVD coating are found out, to be the best coating materials followed by HVOF coating of Armcore ‘M’ material. However, for corrosion, Ti6Al4V, Stellite 6 and 21 hard weld deposits and 17Cr–4Ni pH steel turned out to be the best materials followed by HVOF coating of Stellite 6 and 12. HVOF coatings of WC10Co4Cr and Armcore ‘M’ materials corroded significantly, however, TiAlN PVD coating corroded very badly even after 24 h of testing.